History of Bread

How To Make A Really Good And Rustic Loaf Of Bread 

(The art of the slow rise) 

Bread is the type of food that often goes unmade at home because of the thought of actually making it. It is so common and accessible that it doesn't really have to be made at home, and besides new boutique bakeries are springing up almost daily across the country, which further alleviates the need to bake a wholesome loaf at home. The interest in quality bread today is a sort of paradox actually. On one hand there is a resurgence of artisan bakers who are resurrecting the old style of baking-bread made by hand and with minimal ingredients-and on the other there are those who never bake bread at all. Breadmaking is often misunderstood and thought of as being both time and labor intensive, but is actually about as simple as a food can be to make. In fact it almost makes itself; you simply guide it along. Of course the rising does take a certain length of time to produce a light-as-air loaf, and the dough does have to be kneaded, but both of these are simple tasks and are crucial to good-quality bread. 

The art of making bread by hand is one that should be relished. A person shouldn't approach the task in an anticipated state of trepidation, but hopefully with appreciation. In today's world that so often seems to be racing and spiraling out of control, and in a time when restaurant food performs gravity defying feats on a daily basis, there is no other therapeutic food to create with your hands than bread. This is not to imply that bread has curative properties, but rather the act of making bread can actually be a form of relaxation and meditative medium. Bread feeds not only the body but also the soul, and while bread rises life goes on. 

To make a simple and wholesome loaf of bread all that is needed are four basic ingredients: flour, water, yeast and salt. As for equipment: a bowl, measuring cup, and baking sheet. With these few items and ingredients one is able to bake a fine crusty loaf with an airy yet creamy interior that will rival most bakeries. Experience, of course, is helpful-your bread will get better with each loaf that you bake. In Laurel Robertson's inspirational bread book, The Laurel's Kitchen Bread Book, she begins a chapter early in the book, entitled A loaf For Learning, by stating "The very best way to learn to bake bread is by baking it often," and this statement could not be truer (the book also includes a motivating chapter for novice bakers entitled Fitting Baking Into Your Life). 

Probably the most intimidating aspect of breadmaking to a novice baker is whether or not their bread will rise. The fact is that if you combine the four ingredients previously mentioned it would be more difficult to keep the bread from rising. The outcome of your initial loaves may not exactly be perfect, but that's where experience comes in, and the experience isn't just about knowing how to make bread, it's also about understanding the ingredients. 

Yeast is a living organism, albeit dormant in it's dehydrated state (when referring to yeast in this column I refer to dehydrated yeast, opposed to fresh), and like most organisms it will grow under the right circumstances. When yeast is mixed with water and flour it is rehydrated and fed; it consumes the natural sugars that are in flour and turns it into carbon dioxide and alcohol. When bread is kneaded air is incorporated into the dough creating tiny bubbles, and when yeast expels carbon dioxide and alcohol it flavors it and also fills and expand the air bubbles, which ultimately causes the dough to rise. 

The gas that is created from the yeast is fuel to push the bread skyward, and the protein, or gluten, in flour is the muscle. Thus, flour is categorized by its protein content-cake or pastry flour has a low protein level; bread flour has a high protein level; and all-purpose flour, which as the name suggests, is supposed to be able to be used for "all purposes," is a mixture, and therefore has a medium protein level. The logic, though, is simple-use the correct flour for specific recipes. 

Salt is not simply a seasoning when it comes to baking; it plays a very important role and performs specific functions. One of the most important things that salt does in bread dough is inhibit the yeast. A small amount of salt prevents yeast from "going wild" and over-proofing the dough. Salt also helps to toughen and strengthen gluten, which makes dough able to stretch easier, thus improving the quality and texture of the finished bread. And of course salt is a flavoring agent; without a small amount of salt a bread's flavor would be flat and one-dimensional. 

Water is so ubiquitous that it's often not even listed in the ingredient list of recipes, but is of course vital to bread-it hydrates both the yeast and the flour. While water that is high in chemicals or chlorine can be detrimental to the leavening action of sourdoughs, because natural yeast is more sensitive to intrusive elements, it should not affect bread that is made with store-bought yeast. If your tap water is wholesome enough to drink it is wholesome enough for breadmaking. The biggest concern with water is its temperature: if it is too cold it will render the yeast dormant, and if too hot it can actually kill the yeast. The temperature of water for breadmaking should be slightly warmer than room temperature-between 80-90 degrees Fahrenheit. 

When it comes to mixing bread dough there are two approaches that can be taken: the "straight dough" method and the "sponge" method. The straight dough method is the more common and well-known method, it entails dissolving yeast with water, then mixing in flour and salt, and then allowing the bread to rise. While this is a totally satisfactory method to make bread dough, the method that is preferred by serious bakers and the one that this article deals with is the "old world" method known as the sponge method (levain in French, and biga in Italian). To start bread dough using a sponge, some or all of the water in the recipe is mixed with the yeast and a portion of the flour to form a thick batter. The mixture is then allowed to ferment (rise) for a length of time varying from a few hours to a few days. When the sponge initially rises it takes on an airy and somewhat spongy appearance, hence it's name. The main advantages of making bread with a sponge are that the finished bread will have more flavor-that develops during its lengthy fermentation-and the bread will be lighter and have a better texture because the gluten has already begun to work, stretch, and align itself. There are other advantages of the sponge method also, such as being able to leave a sponge unattended for a much longer period of time than an actual dough, which easily enables even the busiest person to fit bread making into their lives. A sponge, though, should in no way be confused with a sourdough starter. While many bakers incorrectly refer to this method as "sourdough" because of the flavorful bread that it often produces, a true sourdough is produced with only naturally occurring yeast; any recipe that includes the addition of yeast is not a true sourdough. 

Once a sponge is made and has risen the remainder of the flour and the salt is added and kneaded to form a smooth dough. Kneading seems to be the area of breadmaking that is most often dreaded, but it shouldn't be; it's not as difficult as one may think. While hand-kneaded breads produce a better loaf, with the aid of an upright electric mixer with removable bowl and dough hook, dough can be satisfactorily kneaded with little effort on your part-hand-held mixers and food processors are not recommended. Properly kneaded dough is essential for light-textured bread. When dough is kneaded the gluten is stretched and aligned, which enables it to hold trapped gas within the dough as it rises. If the dough is under-kneaded, which under-develops the gluten, the dough will most-likely have a course and dense texture. If the dough is over-kneaded, which can result in destruction of some of the gluten, the rising dough can easily fall. When kneading dough by hand it is nearly impossible to over-knead the dough, thus, it is definitely recommended for novice bakers to knead by hand. Hand kneading allows a person to get a real "feel" for the dough. Dough that is kneaded properly will be smooth and supple. When the gluten is fully developed you will be able to take a small piece of dough and stretch it paper-thin without it tearing easily. If the dough tears easily without stretching, it is not ready and should be kneaded a little longer. 

Once the dough has been sufficiently kneaded it must rest and be given time to rise; this process is referred to as fermentation. During this time the gluten within the dough becomes smoother and more elastic-the yeast acts upon the natural starches and sugars in the flour and gives off gasses causing the dough to rise. The ideal climate for yeast to flourish and multiply contains warmth and moisture. In professional bakeries this environment is achieved with the aid of a proof box. A proof box can be simulated in your home by placing the dough in a bowl and in an unlit oven with a pan of hot water resting on the oven floor. The steam and the heat from the hot water gives off just enough warmth and moisture to aid the rising dough. Dough should ferment until it has doubled in size, and when gently pressed with your fingers the indentations do not spring back. The air is then gently pushed out of the dough by turning it over and inside out ("punching down" is too harsh and not an entirely accurate phrase), which expels the carbon dioxide and alcohol, and evenly disperses the yeast. In professional kitchens the dough is often left to ferment (rise) more than once, but it is not necessary in a home setting. 

Traditionally "rustic" or "country-style" breads are shaped and baked free form, not in loaf pans. The shape that I find easiest to work with is the traditional "boule," or ball (this is, in fact, from where the French word for bakery originates-boulanger; it translates to English as "ball maker"). Bread is shaped into balls by pinching the bottom together and then rolling the dough between your hands and tabletop. The boules are then placed on a baking sheet that has been liberally dusted with cornmeal (I use heavy pizza pans; one for each loaf). The cornmeal will keep the dough from sticking to the pan. The bread again needs to rise until doubled, and this can also be done in the makeshift proof box. Before the bread has risen entirely it should be removed from the oven to preheat it. Leave the pan of water on the oven floor while it is preheating; this will create steam in the oven, which aids in a crisp crust. It is often recommended to transfer the bread from the pan to a heated pizza stone in your oven, via a baker's peel. I have baked bread on terracotta tiles, on pizza stones, and I've also left it and baked it on the pan that the loaves have risen on, and have had excellent results with all. For ease in a home kitchen, I personally recommend baking the bread on the pan that it has risen on, unless, of course, you are fortunate enough to own a wood-fired hearth oven. 

Just before the bread is put into the oven slash the top of it with a very sharp knife. The slashes allow some of the steam to escape the baking bread, but more importantly it enables the center of the bread to continue to rise and expand after the exterior crust has formed. A simple way to tell if bread is done is to tap it, especially on its bottom. If the bread is cooked throughout it will sound hollow when tapped; if it sounds dense or wet the dough is not thoroughly cooked. A more accurate way in which to check for doneness is by checking its internal temperature with a meat thermometer. When the bread is sufficiently baked a thermometer will register approximately 200 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Although it is extremely tempting to slice bread directly from the oven, it will have much better flavor and texture if allowed to cool; bread must be cooled on a wire rack or on a few layers of clean kitchen cloths to allow excess moisture to escape. This also enables any remaining alcohol in the dough to dissipate, which will yield a better-tasting bread. 

Rustic Bread 

Makes 2 loaves 

2-1/3 cups water 

4 teaspoons active yeast (not "quick acting" or "quick rising") 

6 cups unbleached bread flour, divided 

2 teaspoons fine-grained sea salt 

2 tablespoons cornmeal 

In a large bowl combine the water, yeast, and 2 cups of the flour; stir until it forms a thick batter. Cover the bowl with plastic wrap and allow the sponge to ferment at room temperature for 2-8 hours. 

Add the salt and the remaining 4 cups of flour to the sponge, and using a wooden spoon stir the dough until it is thick enough to handle. Turn the dough out onto a work surface and knead it for 8-10 minutes by pushing it away from you and folding it back towards you. If the dough is too sticky dust your hands with the smallest amount of flour (too much additional flour kneaded into the dough will yield a heavy and dense loaf). The dough will eventually become smooth and supple; it will be able to stretch easily without tearing. 

Place the dough in a clean bowl that is large enough to allow it to rise and set the bowl on the middle rack of your oven (DO NOT TURN ON THE OVEN). Place a small pan of hot water on the oven floor to create steam and warmth (with an electric oven the pan of water may have to be placed on an oven rack). With the oven door closed, allow the dough to ferment for 2 hours. The dough will double in size and become light and airy. For a more flavorful bread, and if time allows, deflate the dough and allow it to rise again, for an additional hour. 

After the dough has risen once or twice, deflate it and turn it out onto a work surface. Cut the dough into two even pieces and shape them into round smooth balls. Sprinkle the cornmeal across a baking sheet and place the dough balls on the baking sheet, making sure that any seams that occurred during shaping remain on the bottom. For a more rustic-looking loaf dust each loaf of bread with an additional tablespoon or two of flour. Place the baking sheet in the oven (DO NOT TURN ON THE OVEN), and again place a pan of hot water on the oven floor. Allow the dough to rise for approximately 1 hour; it will have doubled in size, feel light for its size, and when two fingers gently press the dough the indentations remain and do not spring back. 

Gently remove the pan of breads from the oven and set it on the counter; leave the pan of water in the oven. Preheat the oven to 425 degrees Fahrenheit. Using a sharp knife, quickly but gently slash the tops of the breads. Place the pan with the breads on the middle rack in the preheated oven. Within the first 10 minutes the bread will rise considerably (this is referred to as "oven spring"). Bake the breads at 425 degrees for about 20 minutes (if the bread is browning unevenly the pan may need to be rotated once or twice), then remove the pan of water from the oven floor and lower the heat in the oven to 375 degrees Fahrenheit. Bake the bread at this temperature for an additional 25-30 minutes. 

The bread is cooked when the crust is crisp and a deep brown color, and it sounds hollow when tapped; an internal temperature will read approximately 200 degrees Fahrenheit. Keep in mind that all ovens are different and that breads bake at various rates depending on the accuracy of the oven. 

Gently remove the loaves from the pan and place them on a wire rack to cool, or lacking a wire rack rest the bread on several layers of kitchen towels. Allow the bread to cool for 20 minutes before slicing. Store the cooled bread at room temperature or in a freezer; refrigerated bread increases the rate at which bread stales. 

Simple Variations 

Whole Wheat Bread: substitute 1-3 cups of the flour with whole wheat flour 

Honey-Wheat Bread: whole wheat bread with the addition of 2-3 tablespoons honey 

Hot Pepper-Parmesan Bread: add a tablespoon of crushed hot pepper and ¼ cup grated Parmesan cheese 

Garlic-Herb Bread: add a tablespoon of fresh-minced garlic and 2-3 tablespoons fresh minced herbs

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