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Air masses
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The idea that northerly winds (i.e. winds from the north)
are cold, and southerly winds (those from the south) are
warm (at least in the northern hemisphere) is quite common.
Similarly, air that has travelled over the sea picks up
moisture, while air travelling over the land is relatively
dry. These simple concepts help in the understanding of
air masses.
In polar and subtropical regions there are large semi-permanent
anticyclones (high pressure areas). The air resides in
these systems for a long time and is gradually influenced
by the underlying surface - air at the poles is cooled
and air in the tropics is warmed. The result is a large
body of air with little horizontal variation in temperature
and moisture content.
Sometimes there is a large outflow of air from the anticyclones,
and these air masses may approach the British Isles (usually
polar air from the north and tropical air from the south).
However, on their journey they may be modified by contact
with the underlying surface. Air that travels over the
sea (maritime air) is moistened, whereas there is little
change in moisture content of air that travels over the
land (continental air). For example, air that has been
trapped in an anticyclone over the Sahara in June slowly
heats up and dries. After a while, the air moves out of
the anticyclone and may head for the British Isles. On
its way it may collect moisture over the Mediterranean
Sea, but the journey over Spain and France has little effect
on its properties. The air then arrives here as a hot,
dry air mass.
Air masses affecting the British Isles can be broadly
categorised in terms of their source and their path. This
leads to four possible types.
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Tropical maritime - warm and moist
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Tropical continental - warm and dry
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Polar maritime - cold and (fairly) moist
- Polar continental - cold and dry
To these must be added another air mass - returning polar
maritime - which consists of polar air that has moved southwards
over the sea and then turns northwards and approaches the
British Isles from the south.
In reality, the type of air mass affecting the British
Isles only gives an indication of the type of weather that
may occur. The actual weather depends upon the detailed
history of the air, the speed of movement and the surface
over which it flows.
The boundary between two different types of air mass is
referred to as a front. It is common for the British Isles
to be affected by sequences of fronts; these usually separating
polar maritime and tropical maritime air.
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Tropical continental air usually comes with south-easterly
or southerly airstreams. It originates in North Africa
and often travels over the Mediterranean Sea, Spain and
France before reaching the British Isles. In summer, even
easterly winds from central Europe or the Ukraine could
be included in this category, as the continent becomes
so hot at this time of year. The air picks up some moisture
over the Mediterranean (and perhaps the Bay of Biscay),
but overall the air tends to be quite dry and the skies
are typically cloudless.
Strictly speaking, an air mass cooled from below on its
northward journey should be stable. Sometimes, however,
moisture may have found its way to medium levels in the
atmosphere. Then, if there is a layer of unstable air and
a trigger to set off convection, altocumulus castellanus
clouds can develop, looking like turrets. These are often
the forerunner to tremendous thunderstorms, which can occur
by day or night.
The majority of tropical continental airstreams give a
marvellous heat wave (in summer), although plants and animals
tend to be less appreciative of this type of weather. The
lack of moisture usually causes the visibility to be good.
However, in the air there may be desert dust, fine soil
or pollution particles, which can lead to moderate visibility
(often described as 'heat haze'). Also, the cloudless sky
sometimes looks milky because of pollutants.
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A polar continental air mass originates in Scandinavia
or Russia, and the air mass reaches the British Isles when
north-easterly or easterly winds become established. This
tends to occur when there is a high pressure area somewhere
to the north of the British Isles, often over Scandinavia
itself. Polar continental air masses mainly affect the
British Isles during the winter half of the year.
Temperatures in polar continental air masses are below
average in winter, except perhaps to the lee of mountains.
In summer, however, the temperatures tend to be above average.
The moisture content is low in these air masses, especially
when they take the short sea track in the Calais/Dover
region. This leads to clouds being generally well broken,
and so the weather is fine and sunny. Air that has crossed
the North Sea between Denmark and Scotland is said to have
taken a long sea track. It therefore collects more moisture
and clouds tend to form during its journey over the sea.
Consequently, it is cloudy in eastern districts (with perhaps
drizzle or snow flurries), but further inland there tends
to be a mixture of cloud and sunshine. Visibility varies,
generally being very good when air comes from Scandinavia,
but moderate or poor when the air originates in the industrialised
regions of central or eastern Europe. Even in April or
May, the North Sea is cold and does little to modify the
air mass, apart from adding a little unwelcome moisture.
Southern England is particularly chilled by polar continental
air masses. Further north the airstream is less cold and
the wind is less strong.
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Tropical maritime air usually approaches the British Isles
from the south-west. Its source region is the subtropical
Atlantic Ocean, typically the Azores area, although occasionally
it may come almost directly from the Caribbean. During
its passage across the Atlantic, the air is cooled from
below as it passes over a progressively cooler ocean, and
so it becomes more stable. While it cools down, little
of its moisture is lost. It therefore reaches south-west
England or western Ireland almost saturated, giving dull,
warm, overcast weather.
On the coasts, sea fog is common in these tropical maritime
south-westerlies. However, if the cloud base of the stratus
or stratocumulus is several hundred feet, sea-level sites
may be saved from the fog, but on rising ground and hills
there may be fog and drizzle. Bodmin Moor, Dartmoor, south-west
Wales, western Ireland and western Scotland can be shrouded
in mild, damp conditions whether it be winter or summer.
Further inland, in the summer half of the year at least,
the low stratus may be burnt off by the sun and it could
turn out to be quite warm, though still humid. In the lee
of hills or mountain ranges, the clouds sometimes break
up and there is a lot of sunshine. Favoured locations like
north Somerset, North Wales, Northumberland and the Moray
Firth can bask in spring-like weather on a January day.
In a tropical maritime air mass, the nights are mild and
damp, especially in mid-winter. In December and January
the overcast skies result in there being little variation
in temperature between day and night. However, if there
are light winds and clear skies, fog may form inland overnight.
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Polar maritime air is the most common type of air mass
affecting the British Isles. The air has its source in
the Canadian Arctic or the Greenland area. It reaches the
British Isles from the west or north-west after having
swung around the western side of a depression. As the cold
air travels over the relatively warm sea, it is warmed
from below and becomes unstable. Unstable airstreams tend
to produce convection, and so cumulus clouds, cumulonimbus
clouds and showers are likely in polar maritime air. Other
characteristics of the air are that it is cool (especially
in summer), fairly moist and associated with good visibility.
In winter, most of the convection is initiated over the
Atlantic, and showers hit the coasts, spreading inland
if the winds are strong. The Scottish and Welsh mountains
often shelter the eastern side of Britain, although, with
a north-westerly wind, some showers sneak through the Cheshire
Gap to reach Birmingham and perhaps London. With a westerly
wind the winter showers can cross Glasgow and central Scotland
to reach Edinburgh and Fife; others travel up the Bristol
Channel to affect Cardiff and Bristol.
In spring and summer, convection clouds tend to be set
off inland by daytime heating. Now, the shelter of the
western mountains is less important, and showers or short-lived
thunderstorms can occur almost anywhere. At night the clouds
disperse.
After a low has crossed eastwards over the British Isles,
winds 'veer' (a clockwise change in wind direction) to
a northerly point, and true arctic air may reach us. This
is sometimes referred to as arctic maritime air. It is
similar to polar maritime air but tends to be more unstable,
colder and drier. Consequently, showers of rain, snow,
sleet or hail often occur on northern coasts and over high
ground. The Highlands of Scotland usually take the brunt
of a 'screaming northerly', with blizzards on low and high
ground. Elsewhere there tend to be clear skies.
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Returning polar maritime air, like polar maritime air,
originates in polar regions, but travels southwards before
turning north towards the British Isles. The classic returning
polar maritime airstream occurs when a large depression
is situated somewhere to the north-west of the British
Isles. Normally, once the associated weather fronts have
passed through, the British Isles are left in a north-westerly
polar maritime airstream. However, if the air reaching
the British Isles has travelled around the southern edge
of the depression and the winds are between south and south-west,
the air is designated as returning polar maritime.
The air is originally cold, but as it takes a long sea
track southwards across the Atlantic, the lower layers
become warmer, more moist and more unstable. However, as
it returns northwards, the lower layers are cooled and
become more stable. This mixture of a stable layer near
the surface and an unstable layer aloft can lead to a wide
variety of weather. On exposed coasts and hills, the combination
of high moisture content and low-level stability can lead
to stratus clouds and hill fog. Sometimes, however, the
unstable layer leads to the formation of cumulonimbus clouds
and showers (and occasionally thunderstorms). Further inland
a mixture of weather can occur - stratus lifts and disperses
and then suddenly gives way to a heavy shower.
South-west England and Wales usually have the first taste
of a returning polar maritime airstream; such airstreams
are especially common in autumn. Further north and east,
with some shelter from the mountains, conditions tend to
be better. East coast areas may well be quite warm, with
only broken convection clouds. At night, these areas are
usually clear, dry and cool. Moisture contents are quite
high, especially near southern coasts, but the clean air
usually means good visibility. Only if the wind becomes
very light can inland fog form, where evening showers have
moistened the ground.
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This information sheet is based on a series of articles written
by Dick File that appeared in The Guardian.
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