Invasion
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- For other uses of the term "Invasion", see Invasion (disambiguation).
An invasion is a military action consisting of armed forces of one geo-political entity entering territory controlled by another such entity, generally with the objective of conquering territory and/or altering the established government. An invasion can be the cause of a war, it can be used as a strategy to end a war, or it can constitute an entire war in and of itself. The term connotes a strategic endeavor of substantial magnitude; because the goals of an invasion are usually large-scale and long-term, large forces are needed to hold territory and protect the interests of the invading entity. Smaller and lighter tactical infiltrations are not generally considered true invasions, being more often classified as skirmishes, sorties, targeted killings, assassinations, reconnaissance in force, etc. An invasion is normally opposed by the armed forces of the entity invaded, or, where these are lacking or impotent, by popular resistance.
Archaeological evidence indicates that invasions have been frequent throughout history, and indeed throughout prehistory. In antiquity, before radio communications and fast transportation, the only way to ensure adequate reinforcements was to move armies as one massive force. This, by its very nature, led to the strategy of invasion. With invasion came the cultural exchanges in government, religion, philosophy, and technology that shaped the development of much of the ancient world. (Van De Mieroop, 2005)
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Motives and justifications for invasion
Invasions have normally been mounted for straightforward territorial gain and geo-political advantage. Added to these motivations have often been the attractions of immediate looting. However, the reasons advanced for justification of invasion have included restoration of territory lost in the past, religious idealism, policies of national interest, pursuit of enemies, protection of allies, colonialism, pre-emption of an attack, protection or acquisition of transportation routes and water or oil supplies, quelling destabilizing or unconscionable conflict within or between neighbors, and as punishment for a perceived slight.
A relatively recent justification for invasion, which arose during the nineteenth century with Great Powers assuming the right to arrange world politics, has been to change or restore the leadership or political regime of a nation or territory. Often the motive of 'protection' of the invaded territory was (and sometimes still is) adduced in such cases. During the nineteenth century, invasions of this nature frequently manifested themselves under the banner of imperialism. Such invasions are likely to be perceived by one side as an act of usurpation and by the other as an act of liberation.
A modern political trend, probably instigated by a desire to avoid charges of imperialism, has been for the invader euphemistically label an invasion as an intervention.
Defenses against invasion
Nation-states with potentially hostile neighbors will typically adopt defensive measures to delay or forestall an invasion. In addition to utilizing geographical barriers such as rivers, marshes, or rugged terrain, these measures have historically included fortifications. Such a defense can be intended to actively prevent invading forces from entering the country by means of an extended and well-defended barrier (for example, Hadrian's Wall [1] and the Great Wall of China). Such barriers have included walls, trench lines, and mine fields. However, these barriers can require a large military force to provide the defense, imposing an unacceptable economic burden on the country.
Alternately, the fortifications can be built up at a series of sites, such as castles or forts placed near a border. These structures are designed to delay an invasion long enough for the defending nation to mobilize an army of size sufficient for defense or, in some cases, counter-invasion (for example, the Maginot Line). Forts can be positioned so that the garrisons can interdict the supply lines of the invaders. The theory behind these spaced forts is that the invader can not afford to bypass these defenses, and so must lay siege to the structures. (Kaufmann, 1995)
In modern times, the notion of constructing large scale static defenses to combat land based threats is quickly becoming obsolete. The use of precision air campaigns and large scale mechanization have made lighter, more mobile defenses desirable to military planners. Nations defending against modern invasions normally use large population centers such as cities or towns as defensive points. The invader must capture these points to destroy the defender's ability to wage war. The defender uses mobile armored and infantry divisions to protect these points, but the defenders are still very mobile and can normally retreat. A prominent example of the use of cities as fortifications can be seen in the Iraqi Army's stands at Baghdad, Tikrit and Basra in the major combat in the Second Gulf War. A defender can also use these mobile assets to precipitate a counter-offensive like the Soviet Army at the Battle of Kursk or the Northern Alliance in Afghanistan. The notion of completely static defenses has not totally lost its validity in naval and air warfare. Mines are still a cheap and effective way to defend ports and choke off supply lines. Large static air defense systems that combine anti-aircraft guns with seeking missile launchers are still the best way to defend against air attacks. Such systems were used effectively by the North Vietnamese around Hanoi. Also, the United States under the Bush administration has put considerable time and money into the construction of a Strategic Missile Defense System, a static defense grid capable of intercepting nuclear intercontinental ballistic missiles.
Island states, such as Great Britain or Japan, and continental states with extensive seacoasts, such as the United States, have utilized a naval presence to forestall an invasion of their country, rather than fortifying their border areas. A successful naval defense, however, usually requires a preponderance of naval power and an aggressive miltary strategy.
Methods of invasion
There are many different methods by which an invasion can take place, each method having arguments both in their favor and against. These include invasion by land, sea, or air, or any combination of these methods.
Invasion over (or by) land (or land invasion) is the straightforward entry of armed forces into an area using existing land connections, usually crossing borders or otherwise defined zones (such as a demilitarized zone ), overwhelming defensive emplacements and structures. Although this tactic often results in a quick victory, troop movements are relatively slow and subject to disruption by terrain and weather. Furthermore, it is hard to conceal plans for this method of invasion, as most geo-political entities take defensive positions in areas that are most vulnerable (through methods mentioned above).
Invasion by sea (or naval invasion) is the use of a body of water to facilitate the entry of armed forces into an area, often a landmass adjoining the body of water or an island. This is generally used either in conjunction with another method of invasion, or (particularly before the invention of flight) for cases in which there is no other method to enter the territory in question. Arguments in favor of this method usually consist of the ability to perform a surprise attack from sea, or that naval defenses of the area in question are inadequate to repel such an attack. However, the large amount of specialized equipment (such as amphibious vehicles) and the difficulty of establishing defenses--usually with a resulting high casualty count--in exchange for a relatively small gain, are often used as arguments against such an invasion method.
Invasion by air (or aerial invasion) is an invention of the 20th century and modern warfare. This generally involves the sending in of military units by aircraft into a territory. The aircraft then either land, allowing the military units to debark and attempt their objective, or the troops exit the aircraft while in still in the air, using parachutes or similar devices to land in the territory being invaded. Many times such an air invasion is used to pave the way for a ground or sea based assault, by taking key positions deep behind enemy lines such as bridges and crossroads. Arguments in favor of this method generally relate to the ability to target specific areas that may not necessarily be easily accessible by land or sea, a greater chance of surprising the enemy and overwhelming defensive structures, and, in many cases, the need for a reduced number of forces. Arguments against this method typically involve capacity to perform such an invasion, logistical and supply concerns for forces after they are sent into the areas, and the usual need for a high level of intelligence in order for the invasion to be successful. (Koskimaki, 1989)
Outcomes of invasion
The outcomes of an invasion may vary according to the objectives of both invaders and defenders, the success of the invasion and the defense, and the presence or absence of an agreed settlement between the warring parties. The most common outcome is the loss of territory, generally accompanied by a change in government and often the loss of direct control of that government by the losing faction. This sometimes results in the transformation of that country into a client state, often accompanied by requirements to pay reparations or tribute to the victor. In rare cases, the results of a successful invasion may simply be a return to the status quo; this is can be seen in wars of attrition, when the destruction of personnel and supplies is the main strategic objective.
In the case of a profoundly unsuccessful invasion, the result may be a counter-invasion of the attacker's territory. For example, the invasion of the USSR by Nazi Germany in 1942 resulted in an invasion of Germany by the USSR three years later.
Major historical invasions
A more complete list of invasions is also available; this list mentions some of the more famous invasions.
| Date | Invasion |
|---|---|
| 722 BCE | Assyrian invasion of the Kingdom of Israel |
| Hammurabi, during the course of conquering much of what is now known as the Middle East, defeated the Kingdom of Israel and sent its inhabitants into exile. (Van De Mieroop, 2005) This presaged future Greek and Roman conquest and, later, the Crusades. To this day, the region remains contested. | |
| 480 BCE | Persian invasion of Greece |
| Xerxes' conquest of the various Greek city-states eventually brought about the formation of a unified Greek nation. (Van De Mieroop, 2005) | |
| 336–323 BCE | Macedonian conquest of the Persian Empire |
| Alexander the Great led his army into Persia, defeating Darius III, conquering Babylon, and taking control of the Persian Empire. Alexander's influence in mixing cultures led to the Hellenistic Age of Mesopotamia and North Africa. (Van De Mieroop, 2005) | |
| 218 BCE | Hannibal’s invasion of Rome |
| Although Hannibal's invasion of Rome was largely fruitless, his eventual defeat brought about Carthage's loss of Hispania which allowed further Roman expansion to the West. The invasion is also credited with fostering Roman desire to have stronger control of North Africa and Southwest Asia to prevent another such attack from Hellenistic regions. (Bagnall, 1990) | |
| 632–750 | The Islamic Conquests |
| Following Muhammad's unification of the Arabian peninsula, his successors in the Caliphate began a series of invasions of the Middle East, North Africa, Southern Europe, and South Asia. Lasting slighly more than a century, these conquests brought most of the ancient world under the banner of Islam and represent the zenith of Islamic political power. | |
| 1095-1291 CE | The Crusades |
| In a series of nine different major invasions, the Catholic Church attempted to free the "Holy Land" from its Muslim rulers, with varied success. As Jerusalem changed hands and European forces moved back and forth, in-roads to the Levant were reestablished and the cultures mixed on a large scale for the first time in centuries. (Riley-Smith, 1995) | |
| 1206–1227 | Genghis Khan’s invasions of China |
| The Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous empire in history, bringing about dynasty changes (becoming the Yuan Dynasty) in China and further linking Europe and Asia by reestablishing the Silk Road. | |
| 1453 | Ottoman Empire’s conquest of Constantinople |
| The fall of Constantinople marked the end of the Byzantine empire, solidified the Ottoman Empire's rule in the Balkans, and provided a buffer between Europe and the Middle East. This foothold would last until the collapse of the Empire at the end of World War I, when their holdings were parceled out among the European victors. | |
| 1521 | Conquest of the Aztec Empire by Hernán Cortés |
| The last of the Aztec empire was destroyed at the seige of Tenochtitlan, by a combination of Spanish and native Tlaxcalan forces. This opened the door to Spanish colonization of Central America. | |
| 1812 | French invasion of Russia |
| Despite the victories of Napoleon's Grande Armée and their capture Moscow, they were left depleted and without shelter or supplies. Napoleon was forced to withdraw, and the other nations that he had conquered started to revolt. Although this invasion was not the end of Napoleon, it is credited with fostering a powerful patriotism in Russia that would lead to the strengthening of the nation in the 19th and 20th centuries. | |
| 1941 | Nazi invasion of the USSR |
| Operation Barbarossa was Hitler's code name for the German invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II. With over 4 million German troops preparing to blitzkrieg into the USSR, Barbarossa is the largest invasion in history. The Germans advanced at first with ease and nearly captured Moscow, also laying siege to Leningrad. The Germans soon found themselves fighting the harsh Russian winter and fierce Soviet resistance, and their advance ground to a halt at Stalingrad in early 1943. | |
| 1944 | Allied invasion of France |
| In the largest amphibious invasion in history, nearly 3,000,000 Allied troops landed at Normandy to retake France from the occupying German forces commanded by Rommel. Though it was costly, the invasion advanced the Western front and forced Germany to redirect its forces from the Russian and Italian fronts. In hindsight, it is also credited with defining the boundaries of communism; had the Allies not advanced, it is conceivable that Russia would have eventually controlled much more of Europe than they did. | |
| 1950 | Chinese invasion of Tibet |
| The Chinese army began an invasion of Tibet in 1950, first in the outlying provinces and later spreading to the remainder of the country. By 1959, the whole of Tibet was under Chinese control, with its leader the Dalai Lama and his followers fleeing to the neighbouring country of India. (Shakya, 2000) | |
| 1974 | Turkish Invasion of Cyprus |
| In 1974, a coup d'etat by Greek Army officers stationed on the Mediterranian island of Cyprus, tried to overthrow the then-President Makarios. This action led to the subsequent Turkish military invasion (under the provisions of the 1960 Treaty of Guarantee) [1]. | |
References
- Nigel Bagnall (1990). The Punic Wars : Rome, Carthage, and the Struggle for the Mediterranean, Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 0312342144.
- J.E. Kaufmann and H.W. Kaufmann (2005). Fortress France: The Maginot Line and French Defenses in World War II, Prager Security International. ISBN 0275983455.
- George E. Koskimaki (1989). Hell's Highway: Chronicle of the 101st Airborne Division in the Holland Campaign, September-November 1944, 101st Airborne Division Association. ISBN 187770203X.
- John Riley-Smith (1995). The Oxford History of the Crusades, Oxford. ISBN 0192854283.
- Tsering Shakya (2000). The Dragon in the Land of Snows : A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947, Penguin. ISBN 0140196153.
- Marc Van De Mieroop (2005). A History of the Ancient Near East, Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0631225528.
