Imperial Japanese Army
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| 大日本帝國陸軍 Dai-Nippon Teikoku Rikugun Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) |
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 Flag of Japan and flag of Imperial Japanese Army |
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| Active | 1867-1945 |
| Country | Empire of Japan |
| Allegiance | Empire of Japan |
| Type | Army |
| Battles/wars | Sino-Japanese War, Russo-Japanese War, World War I, World War II |
| Commanders | |
| Notable commanders |
Kotohito Kan'in, Hajime Sugiyama, Hideki Tojo, Yasuji Okamura, Shunroku Hata, Tadamichi Kuribayashi, Tomoyuki Yamashita, Masaharu Homma |
The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) (Kyūjitai: 大日本帝國陸軍, Shinjitai: 大日本帝国陸軍, Romaji: Dai-Nippon Teikoku Rikugun) was the official ground based armed force of Imperial Japan from 1867 to 1945. It was controlled by the Imperial Army General Staff Office and the Ministry of War, both of which were nominally subordinate to the emperor as supreme commander of the army and the navy. Later an Inspectorate General of Military (Army) Aviation, became the third agency with oversight over the army. During wartime or national emergencies, the nominal command functions of the emperor would be centralized in an Imperial General Headquarters (IGHQ), an ad-hoc body consisting of the chief and vice chief of the Army General Staff, the minister of war, the chief and vice chief of the Naval General Staff, the inspector general of military aviation, and the inspector general of military training.
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[edit] History
[edit] Foundation
During the Meiji Restoration, the military forces loyal to the Emperor were samurai drawn primarily from the loyalist feudal domains of Satsuma and Chōshū. After the successful overthrow of the Tokugawa Shogunate (bakufu) and establishment of the new Meiji government modeled on European lines, a more formal military, loyal to the central government rather than individual domains, was recognized as a necessity to preserve Japan’s independence from western imperialism.
This central army, the "Imperial Japanese Army" (IJA), became even more essential after the abolition of the feudal domains in 1871. To reform the military, the government instituted nationwide conscription in 1873, mandating that every male serve in the armed forces for 3 years upon turning twenty-one. One of the primary differences between the samurai and peasant class was the right to bear arms; this ancient privilege was suddenly extended to every male in the nation.
In 1874, the Taiwan expedition was the first foray abroad of the new Imperial Japanese Navy and the Imperial Japanese Army.
[edit] Foreign assistance
The early Imperial Japanese Army was essentially developed with the assistance of French advisors, through the second French Military Mission to Japan (1872-1880), and the third French Military Mission to Japan (1884-1889). However, due to the German victory in the Franco-Prussian War, the Japanese government also relied on Prussia as a model for their army, and hired two German military advisors (Major Jakob Meckel, replaced in 1888 by von Wildenbrück and Captain von Blankenbourg) for the training of the Japanese General Staff from 1886 to April 1890: the Imperial Army General Staff Office, created after the Prussian Generalstab, was established directly under the Emperor in 1878 and was given broad powers for military planning and strategy. Other known foreign military consultants were the Italian Major Pompeo Grillo, who worked at the Osaka foundry from 1884 to 1888, followed by Major Quaratezi from 1889 to 1890, and the Dutch Captain Schermbeck, who worked on improving coastal defenses from 1883 to 1886.
Japan did not use anymore foreign military advisors between 1890 and 1918, until again a French Military Mission to Japan (1918-1919), headed by Commandant Jacques Faure, was requested to assist in the development of the Japanese air services.
[edit] Satsuma rebellion
Not surprisingly, the new order led to a series of riots from disgruntled samurai. One of the major riots was the one led by Saigō Takamori, the Satsuma rebellion, which eventually turned into a civil war. This rebellion was put down swiftly by conscripts in the newly- formed imperial army, trained in Western tactics and weapons, even though the core of the new army was actually the Tokyo Police force, consisting mostly of former samurai.
An imperial rescript of 1882 called for unquestioning loyalty to the Emperor by the new armed forces and asserted that commands from superior officers were equivalent to commands from the Emperor himself. Thenceforth, the military existed in an intimate and privileged relationship with the imperial institution. Top-ranking military leaders were given direct access to the Emperor and the authority to transmit his pronouncements directly to the troops. The sympathetic relationship between conscripts and officers, particularly junior officers who were drawn mostly from the peasantry, tended to draw the military closer to the people. In time, most people came to look more for guidance in national matters to military commanders than to political leaders.
By the 1890’s, the Imperial Japanese Army had grown to become the most modern army in Asia, well-trained, well equipped and high in morale. However, it was basically an infantry force which at times was deficient in cavalry and artillery when compared with its European contemporaries.
[edit] Sino Japanese War
- Further information: First Sino-Japanese War
Japan fielded a force of 120,000 in two armies and five divisions.
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This short section requires expansion. |
[edit] Russo-Japanese War
- Further information: Russo-Japanese War
[edit] Rise of militarism in Showa era
In the 1920s the Imperial Japanese Army expanded rapidly and by 1937 had a force of 300,000 men. Unlike western countries it enjoyed a great deal of independence from government. Under the provisions of the Meiji Constitution, the War Minister was held accountable only to the Emperor himself, and not to the elected civilian government. In fact, Japanese civilian administrations needed the support of the Army in order to survive. The Army controlled the appointment of the War Minister and in 1936 a law was passed that stipulated that only an active duty general or lieutenant-general could hold the post. As a result, the military spending as a proportion of the national budget rose disproportionately in the 1920s and 1930s, and various factions within the military exerted disproportionate influence on Japanese foreign policy.
The Imperial Japanese Army was originally known simply as the Army (rikugun) but after 1928, as part of the Army's turn toward romantic nationalism and also in the service of its political ambitions, it retiled itself the Imperial Army (kōgun).
Action by the military, largely independent of the civilian leadership, led to the invasion of Manchuria in 1931; and the subsequent Second Sino-Japanese War and Pacific War.
[edit] World War II
In 1941, the Imperial Japanese Army had 51 divisions and various special-purpose artillery, cavalry, anti-aircraft and armored units with a total of 1,700,000 men. At the beginning of the Second World War most of the Japanese Army was stationed in China. However, from 1942 soldiers were sent to Hong Kong (23rd Army), the Philippines (14th Army), Thailand (15th Army), Burma (15th Army), Dutch East Indies (16th Army) and Malaya (25th Army).
The Japanese Army performed well in the early stages of the war. After 1943 they suffered from a shortage of supplies. This included a lack of guns, tanks and aircraft, and was worsened by a long-standing and severe rivalry with the Imperial Japanese Navy. By 1945 there were 5.5 million men in the Imperial Japanese Army.
Throughout the second Sino-Japanese War and World War II the Imperial Japanese Army had gained a reputation both for its fanaticism and for its brutality against prisoners of war and civilians alike. After Japan surrendered in the summer of 1945, many Imperial Japanese Army officers and enlisted men were tried and punished for committing numerous atrocities and war crimes.
Several reasons are theorized for the especially brutal and unmerciful behavior exhibited by many members of the IJA towards their adversaries or non-Japanese civilians. One is probably the brutal behavior that they themselves experienced. The IJA was known for the extremely harsh treatment of its enlisted soldiers, including beatings, unnecessarily strenuous duty tasks, lack of adequate food, and other violent or harsh disciplinary tactics.
After the defeat of Japan in World War II, the Imperial Japanese Army was formally dissolved in September 1945 by the U.S. occupying forces.
In 1954, Japan created the Japan Self-Defense Forces. These forces, though significantly smaller than the Imperial Japanese Army and purely for defense, constitutes the modern army of Japan.
[edit] Imperial General Headquarters and the power of the Emperor in Showa era
During the first part of the Showa era, according to the Meiji Constitution, the Emperor had the "supreme command of the Army and the Navy" (Article 11). Emperor Showa was thus legally supreme commander of the Imperial General Headquarters, founded in 1937 and by which the military decisions were made.
The primary sources such as the "Sugiyama memo", and the diaries of Fumimaro Konoe and Koichi Kido, describe in detail the many informal meetings the Emperor had with his chiefs of staff and ministers. These documents show that he was kept informed of all military operations and frequently questioned his senior staff and asked for changes.
According to historians Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Seiya Matsuno, Hirohito authorized by specific orders, transmitted by the Chief of staff of the Army such as prince Kan'in or Hajime Sugiyama, the use of chemical weapons against Chinese civilians and soldiers. For example, he authorized the use of toxic gas on 375 separate occasion during the invasion of Wuhan in 1938. [1] Such weapons were also authorized during the invasion of Changde.
According to historians Akira Fujiwara and Akira Yamada, Hirohito even made major interventions in some military operations. For example, he pressed Sugiyama four times, on January and February 1942, to increase troop strength and launch attack on Bataan. [2] On August 1943, he scolded Sugiyama who could not stop the American advance on the Solomon Islands and asked him to consider other places to attack. [3].
Only in rare moments of special importance, decisions were made in Imperial council. The Imperial government used this special institution to sanction the invasion of China, the Greater East Asia War and to end the war. In 1945, executing the decision approved in Imperial conference, Emperor Showa for the first and last time directly ordered via recorded radio broadcast to all of Japan, as his last role as commander-in-chief, the surrender to United States forces.
[edit] Ideology
Japanese nationalism meant that the military was built around a concept of the time period: a Rich Country has a Strong Military. Nationalists asserted that Japan as a land was sacred, and its people were special due to a combination of Zen-Chan and various forms of Japanese Buddhism with Shinto. Service in the Japanese military was seen as service to the Emperor. Each soldier in theory believed it was a great honor to die for the Emperor as the samurai concept "to serve" was deeply ingrained in all the soldiers culture.
The concept of Yamato Damashi equipped each soldier with a strict code: never be captured, never break down, and never surrender. To be a coward or to be captured was a disgrace to one's family, community, and country. Each soldier was trained to fight to the death and was expected to die before suffering dishonor. Often, imperial soldiers would shout "Banzai" before charging into battle, believing that the exuberant cheer would indicate their willingness to die with honor. Every soldier accepted that they were expected to serve stoically as part of their bushido, represented in the idea of "death before dishonor". Sadao Araki, an Army theorist, devised the contemporary adaptation to bushido code as a Seishin Kyoiku (spiritual training) doctrine for the army. As such, each soldier would leave everything behind when going into the service, needing nothing but honor. Indeed, honor as represented by name and face meant everything to these soldiers. Yamato Damashi is an old Nippon spirit of self-pride and persistence in the face of grave danger, a sort of kokoro.
Tied in with this concept of bushido was immense, religious respect for the Emperor. Although during Meiji and Taisho eras, the Emperor was practically a figurehead, with the real power being held by the bureaucrats underneath him, he was still considered a divine figure. In theory the commander in chief, the Emperor usually went along with whatever the government "asked" him to do. The Emperor wore the commander-in-chief's uniform, and was saluted by the Imperial Forces, at all ceremonial functions involving the IJA forces.
At the time, the Imperial government could only mobilize the military if the cabinet ministers came to a unanimous consensus on the order. The role of the Emperor lay in giving his blessing to execute and bind such orders. Since the Emperor was required to be present at all Imperial government meetings for their decision to be binding, The Emperor silently observed all the official arguments made by the ministers. Presuming his blessing was given, after an agreement of the ministers, these requests became the orders of the Emperor, enforceable upon the people of Japan.
[edit] Strength
- 1870, consisted of 12,000 men.
- 1885, consisted of seven divisions including the Imperial Guard Division.
- In the early 1900s, the IJA consisted of 12 divisions, the Imperial Guard Division, and numerous other units. These contained the following:
- 380,000 active duty and 1st Reserve personnel - former Class A and B(1) conscripts after 2 year active tour with 17 and 1/2 year commitment
- 50,000 Second line Reserve - Same as above but former Class B(2) conscripts
- 220,000 National Army
- 1st National Army - 37 to 40 year old men from end of 1st Reserve to 40 years old.
- 2nd National Army - untrained 20 year olds and over 40 year old trained reserves.
- 4,250,000 males available for service and mobilization.
- 1934 - army increased to 17 Divisions
- 1940 - 376,000 active with 2 million reserves in 31 divisions
- 2 Divisions in Japan (Imperial Guard plus one other)
- 2 Divisions in Korea
- 27 Divisions in China and Manchuria
- In late 1941 - 460,000 active in 41 divisions
- 1945 - 5 million active in 145 Divisions (includes 3 Imperial Guard), plus numerous individual units, with a large militia
- includes Imperial Japanese Army Air Service.
- Japan Defense Army in 1945 had 55 divisions with 2 million men.
Total military in August 1945 was 6,095,000.
[edit] Arsenals
Additionally Japanese Army managed various Arsenals:
- Japanese Army Sagami Arsenal - with Mitsubishi, developed and manufactured tanks
- Japanese Army Osaka Arsenal - with Mitsubishi and Hitachi manufactured tanks and artillery
- Japanese Army Sasebo Arsenal - with Mitsubishi, manufactured tanks
- Japanese Army Heijo Arsenal - with Nambu, manufactured hand and long infantry weapons
- Japanese Army Mukden Arsenal - with Nambu, manufactured infantry weapons
- Japanese Army Kokura Arsenal - with Nambu, manufactured small arms and Machine Guns
- Japanese Army Tokyo Arsenal - the Army administrative and testing center related with light and heavy weapons production
- Japanese Army Tachikawa Arsenal - dedicated to develop and manufacture aircraft for the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service
[edit] Organization of the Imperial Japanese Army
[edit] Japanese armies
[edit] Japanese divisions
[edit] Japanese Mixed Brigades
The Japanese Imperial Army had two types of Mixed Brigades. First type was the divisional Mixed Brigade. This was the semi-permenent detachment of a brigade from an Infantry Division with various Divisional support units or units attached from its Corps or Army. This provided a combined arms force of infantry, artillery, cavalry and other support units.
Second was the Independent Mixed Brigade. These were detachments made of various units detached from other units or independent support units formed together in a brigade.
The first two of these Independent Mixed Brigades, formed by the Kwangtung army in the 1930s was the IJA 1st Independent Mixed Brigade and the IJA 11th Independent Mixed Brigade. Each of these brigades were organized in a unique manner and one of them, the 11th was later formed into the IJA 26th Division.
Later a series of Independent Mixed Brigades were formed for the purpose of garrisoning the large territories of China captured in the early phase of the Second Sino-Japanese War. This variety for China was usually organized with five infantry battalions, an artillery unit, and labor troops. In the Pacific theater they had different and more varied configurations of subordinate units.
[edit] Japanese Imperial Army detachments
Detachments were particular military formations of the Japanese Imperial Army. These detachments were a force of infantry, artillery, armored, and other support units which were temporarily assigned for independent action and had a special mission. They were usually named after their commanders or the area in which they were to operate.
[edit] Casualties
Over the course of the Imperial Japanese Army's existence, millions of its soldiers were either killed, wounded, missing and captured.
 Two dead Japanese soldiers in a water filled shell hole somewhere in New Guinea 1943. |
 Dead Japanese soldier on Engebi Island February 1944. |
- World War Two Casualties:
- Deaths
- 2,566,000 Armed Forces dead including non-combat deaths, plus 672,000 civilian dead.
- includes 1,506,000 killed in action
- 2,566,000 Armed Forces dead including non-combat deaths, plus 672,000 civilian dead.
- 810,000 missing in action/
- 7,500 prisoners of war.
- Deaths
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[edit] See also
- Double Leaf Society
- Field Marshal (Japan)
- List of Japanese Army Officers (WW2)
- Greater East Asia War
- Imperial Japanese Army Air Service
- Imperial Japanese Army Uniforms
- Imperial Japanese Navy
- Imperial Japanese rations
- Imperial Way Faction or Koda-Ha
- Japanese Army and Navy Strategies for South Seas areas (1942)
- Japanese Army Railways and Shipping Section
- Japanese human experimentation on the Chinese
- Japanese military ranks
- Japanese nationalism
- Japanese war crimes
- Kempeitai - the military police
- Kokuryu-kai - The Black Dragon Society
- List Of Japanese Army Military Engineer Vehicles(WW2)
- List of Bombs in use by Imperial Japanese Army
- List of Japanese military equipment of World War II
- List of Radars in use by Imperial Japanese Army
- List of Japanese WW2 Weapons
| Imperial Japanese Army special research units |
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| Unit 100 (Shenyang) | Unit 516 (Qiqihar) | Unit 543 (Hailar) | Unit 731 (Pingfang) / Unit 200 (Manchuria) / Unit 8604 or Nami Unit (Guangzhou) | Unit 773 (Songo) | Unit Ei 1644 (Nanjing) | Unit 1855 (Nanjing) | Unit 2646 or Unit 80 (Hailar) | Unit 9420 or Oka Unit (Singapore) |
