Doctorate

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Aquatint of a Doctor of Divinity at the University of Oxford, in the scarlet and black academic robes corresponding to his position. From Rudolph Ackermann's History of Oxford, 1814.
Aquatint of a Doctor of Divinity at the University of Oxford, in the scarlet and black academic robes corresponding to his position. From Rudolph Ackermann's History of Oxford, 1814.

A doctorate is an academic degree of, in many countries, the highest level, second only to the habilitation in those (primarily Central and Eastern European) countries that grant the latter. The term doctorate comes from the Latin doctor, meaning "teacher." It originated in Medieval Europe as a license to teach at a university. In this sense doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts", seven years, was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree.

The usage and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, and it has also been subject to regional variations. For instance, until the early 20th century few faculty members in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time the German practice of requiring prospective lecturers to have completed a "research doctorate" became widespread. Additionally, universities' shifts to "research oriented" education increased the importance of the doctorate. Today such a doctorate is generally a prerequisite for pursuing an academic career, although not everyone who receives a research doctorate becomes a member of a university. Many universities also award "honorary doctorates" to individuals who have been deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or for other contributions to the university or to society.

Although the research doctorate is almost universally accepted as the standard qualification for an academic career, it is a relatively new invention. The older-style doctorates (now usually called "Higher Doctorates" in the United Kingdom) take much longer to complete, since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects. These doctorates are now less common in some countries, and are often awarded honoris causa. The habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU and involves either a new long thesis (a second book) or a portfolio of research publications. The habilitation demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing and, more recently, the ability to generate funding within the area of research. The "habilitation" is regarded as a senior post-doctoral qualification, many years after the research doctorate, and can be necessary for a Privatdozent (in Germany) or professor position.

A similar system traditionally holds in Russia. Already in the Russian Empire the academic degree doctor of science (doktor nauk) marked the highest academic degree which can be achieved by an examination. This system was generally adopted by the USSR/Russia and many post-Soviet countries.

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[edit] Types of doctorate

Since the Middle Ages, there has been considerable evolution and proliferation in the number and types of doctorates awarded by universities throughout the world, and practices vary from one country to another. Broadly speaking, though, doctorates may be loosely classified into the following categories.

[edit] Research doctorates

Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of academic research that is in principle publishable in a peer-refereed context (such as a research journal or monograph) and represents at least a modest contribution to human knowledge. The research is usually assessed by submission and defense of a thesis or dissertation, or of a suitable body of published work.

The most common example of this type is the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), which has become particularly widespread over the past century. Other examples include the Doctor of Engineering (EngD) in the United States and United Kingdom, and the Doctor rerum naturalium (Dr.rer.nat.) in Germany.

Minimum periods for research doctorates vary considerably: In the UK and USA the minimum time for completing the course work or research for a Ph.D. is usually three years. Originally, the student would first complete a master's degree. Although this is still true in some disciplines and countries (for instance arts and humanities in the UK), the norm these days is to progress straight from a first degree into a Ph.D. programme. Although completions within this period are possible, many candidates take considerably longer: anywhere from five to ten years (including both course work and completion of the dissertation). During the late 1990s, the UK research councils introduced penalties (in the form of a reduction of future funding) for departments whose students regularly failed to submit their thesis within four years (full time) from initial registration. Students in the physical sciences typically have shorter completion times than students in the arts due to their better access to funding sources. In the UK and USA, the research doctorate normally requires three to four years of original research submitted as a thesis. Coursework is increasingly becoming a required component in research doctorates around the world.

Under European law, holders of research doctorates from any EU country are recognized in others.

[edit] Higher doctorates

In some countries, especially the United Kingdom, Ireland and some Scandinavian and Commonwealth nations, there is a higher tier of research doctorates, awarded on the basis of a formally submitted portfolio of published research of a very high standard. Examples include the Doctor of Science and Doctor of Letters degrees found in the UK and some Commonwealth countries, and the Danish doctorate (doktorgrad; e.g. dr.theol., doctor theologiæ, Latin for Doctor of Theology).

The German habilitation postdoctoral qualification is sometimes regarded as belonging to this category, even though, strictly speaking, the habilitation is not an academic degree, but rather a professional license to teach at a German university.

Higher doctorates are often also awarded honoris causa when a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's achievements and contributions to a particular field.

[edit] Professional doctorates

Main article: First professional degree

Professional doctorates are awarded in certain fields where most holders of the degree are not engaged primarily in scholarly research and academic activities, but rather in a profession, such as law, medicine, music, or ministry. Examples include the US degrees of Doctor of Medicine (MD) and Doctor of Jurisprudence (JD), and the degrees of Doctor of Dental Medicine (MDDr.) and Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (MVDr.) in the Czech Republic.

In the UK and Australia, the term Professional Doctorate is used to refer to research doctorates with a focus on applied research. These are equivalent to a PhD and include the Doctor of Education (EdD), Doctor of Applied Linguistics (DAppLing) and Doctor of Business Administration (DBA). The thesis for such degrees should be of the same standard as a PhD thesis but the findings should have implications for professional practice. Such degrees usually include coursework and research training and are similar in structure to US PhD programs.

[edit] Honorary doctorates

Main article: Honorary degree

When a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's achievements and contributions to a particular field, it may choose to award him or her a degree (usually a doctorate) honoris causa ('for the sake of the honour'). In these circumstances, the university waives the usual formal requirements for the award of that degree. Often the recipient's achievements will be academic in nature, and of the requisite standard for award of a substantive doctorate; in other cases the achievements may not be academic in character.

There is a view that such degrees are in some way lesser than substantive (earned) degrees. Indeed, some universities, for example Rice University and the University of Virginia, do not confer honorary degrees for precisely this reason. Nevertheless, a university is empowered to grant degrees for whatever reasons it deems fit, and although in theory there is no difference between earned and honorary doctorates, and the holder is entitled to the style 'Dr', in practice this is rarely done.

[edit] Usage

Main article: Doctor (title)

The title of "Doctor" is often used both by, and of those holding research doctorates or limited professional (usually medical) doctorates. In the UK and most Commonwealth countries this title has for many centuries also been accorded to holders of the degree of Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery (equivalent to the degree of Doctor of Medicine in the US and elsewhere). However in the UK, for historical reasons, members of the surgical Royal Colleges are not addressed as "Doctor", but as Mister, Miss, etc.

In the past, in the United States a person with a research doctorate would use the title "doctor" in an academic or research/development setting, and in publication; however, it is becoming more common to use the title if working in a corporate settinging. This is the case in most continents. In some countries the term "doctor" may be used as a title of respect even if the person being addressed has no doctoral degree.

The earliest doctoral degrees (theology - Divinitatis Doctor (D.D.), philosophy - Doctor of philosophy (D.Phil., Ph.D.) and medicine - Medicinæ Doctor (M.D., D.M.)) reflected the historical separation of all University study into these three fields. Over time the D.D. has gradually become less common and studies outside theology and medicine have become more common (such studies were then called "philosophy", but are now classified as sciences and humanities - however this usage survives in the degree of Doctor of Philosophy).

[edit] Country-specific practice

[edit] Brazil

The candidate is normally required to have received a Master's degree in a related field prior to getting a Doctor's degree. In a few cases however, some institutions may admit candidates who do not hold a Master's degree, based on their individual academic merit. A second and a third foreign language are also common requirements for those willing to enroll in a doctoral program in Brazil. The admission process varies by institution. Some require candidates to take several tests prior to admission to the program and others base admissions on a research proposal application and interview only. In both instances however, a faculty member must agree prior to admission to supervise the applicant for the duration of the doctorate.

The requirements for the Doctor's degree usually include satisfactory performance in a minimum number of advanced graduate courses, passing an oral qualifying exam, and submitting a doctoral thesis that must represent an original and relevant contribution to existing knowledge in the field of study to which the thesis topic is related. The thesis is examined in a final public oral exam administered by a panel of at least five faculty members, two of whom must be necessarily external examiners. After completion of the program, which normally lasts around 4 years, the candidate is commonly awarded the degree of Doutor (Doctor) followed by the name of the main area of specialization in which his/her research was conducted, e.g. Doutor em Direito (Doctor of Laws), Doutor em Ciências da Computação (Doctor of Computer Sciences), Doutor em Filosofia (Doctor of Philosophy), Doutor em Economia (Doctor of Economics), Doutor em Engenharia (Doctor of Engineering), Doutor em Medicina (Doctor of Medicine), and so on. The generic title of Doutor em Ciências (Doctor of Sciences) is normally used to refer collectively to doctorates in the natural sciences (i.e. Physics, Chemistry, Biological and Life Sciences, etc.)

All graduate programs in Brazilian public universities are tuition-free as mandated by the Brazilian constitution. Several graduate students with good academic standing are additionally supported by institutional scholarships granted by federal government agencies like CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico) and CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento do Pessoal de Ensino Superior). Personal scholarships are also provided by the various FAP's (Fundações de Amparo à Pesquisa) at the state level, especially FAPESP in the state of São Paulo, FAPERJ in the state of Rio de Janeiro and FAPEMIG in the state of Minas Gerais. Competition for graduate financial aid is very intense though and most scholarships support at most 2 years of Master's studies and 4 years of doctoral studies. The normal monthly stipend for doctoral students in Brazil is between 500 and 1000 USD.

A degree of Doutor usually enables an individual to apply for a junior faculty position equivalent to that of Assistant Professor in the United States. Progression to full professorship at the rank known as Professor Titular requires however that the candidate be successful in a competitive public exam and normally takes many years. In the federal university system, individuals who hold a doctorate and are admitted as junior faculty members may progress (usually by seniority) to the rank of Associate Professor and, then, become eligible to take the competitive exam for full professorship provided that a professorship is available. In the São Paulo state universities however, progression to the rank of Associate Professor and subsequent eligibility to apply for a full professorship is conditioned on an individual's obtaining first the qualification of Livre-docente, which is similar to the Habilitation in the German university system and requires, in addition to a previous doctoral degree, the submission of a second thesis or cumulative portfolio of peer-reviewed publications, a public lecture before a panel of experts (including external members from other universities), and also passing a written exam.

[edit] Finland

Finland requires 45 weeks (1800 hours) of study for older students. This requirement has been removed during the Bologna process leaving the decision to individual students and their professors, but some fields recommend a requirement 70 course credits (1866,67 hours). Receiving the doctorate also requires a written thesis. Thesis can either be a monograph or it can be edited from a collection of 3 to 7 journal articles, including an introduction tying the individual parts.

[edit] France

In France, the doctorate (doctorat) is always a research-only degree. It is a national degree and its requirements are fixed by an official text of the minister of higher education and research. Except for a very small number of private institutions (such as the HEC School of Management), only public institutions of higher education and research can award the doctorate. It can be awarded in any field of study. The master's degree or the former diplôme d'études approfondies is a prerequisite for pursuing doctoral program. The official normal duration of the doctoral work is three years. The redaction of a comprehensive thesis constitutes the bulk of the doctorate's work. There are ~15000 new matriculations for the doctoral program every year and ~10000 doctorates awarded.

Doctoral candidates can apply for a three-year fellowship, the most well known being the allocation de recherche du ministère de l'enseignement supérieur et de la recherche (4000 granted every years, gross salary of 18,369 euros in February 2007).

During the preparation of the doctorate, the candidate has had, since 2002, to follow a limited number of courses, but there is no written examination for the doctorate. The candidate has to write an extensive thesis which is read by two external reviewers designated by the head of the institution. According to the reports of the reviewer, the head of the institution decides whether the candidate can defend his thesis or not. The members of the jury are designated by the head of the institution and must be composed of external and internal academics. The supervisor of the candidate is generally member of the jury, as well as the reviewers of the thesis. The maximum number of members in the jury is 8. The defense lasts generally 45 minutes in scientific fields and are followed by 1h30 - 2h30 of questions from the jury. Defense and questions are public. At the end of the series of questions, the jury deliberates in private during 20-30 min and comes back to declare the candidate admitted or postponed. Postponement is very rare. The admission of the candidate is generally followed by a distinction: "honourable", which is not highly considered, "very honourable", which is the usual distinction, and "very honourable with the congratulation of the jury". Because there exist no national criteria for the award of this last distinction, many institutions have decided not to award it. New regulations concerning this distinction were set in 2006.

Confusingly the title of doctor (docteur) is used only by the medical and pharmatical practitioners who hold not a doctorate but a doctor's state diploma (diplôme d'État de docteur), which is a first-degree and professional doctorate obtained after at least 9 years of studied. As they do not pursue research studies, they are not awarded a doctorate.

Before 1984 three research doctorates existed : the state doctorate (doctorat d'État, the old doctorate introduced in 1808), the third cycle doctorate (doctorat de troisième cycle), created in 1954 and shorter that the state doctorate, and the diploma of doctor-engineer (diplôme de docteur-ingénieur), created in 1923, for technical researches. Since 1984, there has been only a unique doctor's degree, simply called "doctorate". There has been also a diploma named "habilitation to supervise researches" (habilitation à diriger des recherches), which is a professional qualification to supervise a doctoral work. Before only professors or senior full researchers considered with the same rank than professor could normally supervise a doctoral work.

[edit] Germany

In Germany, all doctorates bear the same level of merit. There are no first-degree doctorates as lawyers; medical doctors do not necessarily hold a doctorate, although it is much easier for medical students to earn the degree (it is completed in about one year within their course) than for those studying other disciplines (where the doctorate usually takes at least three years to complete). Apart from that, Germany uses different titles, which are written in front of the first name for addresses (within texts, the abbreviation "Dr." is common) and accompany the person's name (unlike in German-speaking Switzerland). This is a list of the types of doctorates encountered most often. For each title the subject is indicated in which it is mostly awarded. (There are exceptions from this, depending on the rules and traditions of the degree-awarding university.). Some believe that in Germany the title "Dr." is part of a person's name and that these people have a right to be addressed with the title. This misunderstanding comes forth from the fact that "Dr." is the only academic degree that can be mentioned in one's identity card. But this does not make it part of the name. In Southern Germany and Austria it is more common to address somebody with the title than in the North. It can also depend on the occasion and of course of the individual person whether to use the title or not. The proper expression is "Herr Doktor" (male) or "Frau Doktor" (female). Doktors may not address other Doktors with the title, because that would give the impression that one were preferring, or even insisting on, being called Doktor oneself, which could be seen as slightly pathetic. When officially writing to a person with several titles, it would be proper to begin with the "highest" title and eventually name several Dr.-titles, e.g. Prof. Dr. Dr. Schmidt. The actual addressing begins with Sehr geehrter Herr Professor / Sehr geehrte Frau Professor. There are different opinions on whether dropping the Herr or Frau in such occasions is appropriate.

Upon the completion of a second dissertation or Habilitationsschrift a senior doctorate (dr. habil.) is awarded. This senior doctorate is known as the Habilitation. It is not a degree, but an additional qualification. This or an equivalent professional experience is - traditionally - the necessary prerequisite for a position of Privatdozent and Professor. Now, with the BA/MA-model and the Juniorprofessoren to be introduced, this has already changed partially.

[edit] India

In India doctorate level degrees are offered by the universities or institutions of national level importance deemed to be universities such as Indian Institute of Sciences. Entry requirements for doctorate degrees by most of the universities are a good Masters level(Post graduate degree). Some Universities also consider Undergraduate degrees in professional subjects such as Engineering, Medicine or law for entrance to Doctorate level degrees. Entrance examinations are held for almost all the universities for admission to doctoral level degrees. The duration of the coursework and thesis for award of the degree is about 5 years. The most commonly awarded doctoral level degree is Ph.D. There are some other Doctoral level degrees also such as DBA ( Doctorate of Business Administration),LLD (Doctorate in Laws) and D.Sc(Doctorate in Science). Some of the Institutions of the national level importance such as Indian Institute of Management call their Doctoral level programmes Fellowship.

[edit] Ireland

The Irish academic system and the British system have many similarities, reflecting both the colonial experience of Ireland, and the close and enduring links between the 2 countries. The sequence of degrees is Bachelor (BA, BSc and others) Master (MA, MSc, MPH and others) Doctor (PhD, MD, LLD, DD, DMus), Higher degrees on the UK model also exist, but the only one in any common use is the DSc[citation needed].

[edit] The Netherlands

The traditional academic system of The Netherlands provides four basic academic diplomas and degrees: propaedeuse, candidate, doctorandus (drs.) and doctor (dr.). After successful completion of the first year of University, the student is awarded the propaedeutic diploma (not a degree). The candidate degree, which was all but abolished by 1989, used to be attained after three years of academic study, after which the student was allowed to begin work on his doctorandus' thesis. The successful completion of this thesis allows one to use the doctorandus title, attainment of which means one's initial studies are finished. Those who choose to, and are hired as promovendus (research assistant), perform extensive research and write a doctoral dissertation (usually over the course of four years). Upon completion, a doctor's degree is awarded. This is the highest academic degree one can attain. In addition to these 'general' degrees, a number of specific titles for certain subjects are available, each of which is equivalent to the doctorandus degree: for law: meester ('master') (mr.), and for engineering: ingenieur ('engineer')(ir.).

In the last few years, the Dutch have incorporated the Anglo-Saxon system of academic degrees into their own. The old candidate's degree has been revived as bachelor's degree, the doctorandus' by the master's degree. This development has led the three Universities of Technology to award a Professional Doctorate in Engineering (PDEng), which replaced a post-master degree. This degree however is not incorporate in the Dutch Higher Education Act and therefore is not a protected title.

[edit] Poland

Polish system is similar to the one adopted in Germany, with Ph.D. as a first level doctorate and habilitation (habilitacja) as second. The award of the title of doktor (Ph.D.) is usually preceded by 4-5 years of doctoral study (a post-graduate study offered at most universities, with or without an obligation to teach some classes), but can also be obtained without a formal participation in the doctoral studies. In order to become a doktor habilitowany (i.e. being awarded second level doctorate) a candidate has to publish a dissertation, preceded with several years of deep field studies and have recognized research record. Only candidates with habilitation are eligible to become professors.

To become a doctor one needs to write a dissertation (varying in length), which then must be accepted by a panel of professors during a so-called defence of the dissertation (obrona pracy doktorskiej). There are several other requirements, like passing an exam in a foreign language and philosophy or economics (similar to the Russian system).

A prospective doctor must have also published some works (articles, books) beforehand, otherwise s/he would not be allowed to start the doctoral proceedings (przewód doktorski).

The title of a doctor is abbreviated as dr (without a full stop) before the surname of a person, e.g. dr Kowalski.

Doktor is also a common form of addressing a physician, but that does not indicate that the person actually holds a doctoral degree. Doctors of medicine have the abbreviation dr n. med. (doctor of medical studies) before or after their surname.

The title of dr inż. (doctor of engineering) is another specific doctoral titles. Dr n.hum. means doctor of humanities (incl. psychology and sociology), but is rarely used to differentiate from doctors of other fields. All other doctorates have no indications of their field.

[edit] Portugal

  • Doutor (Doctor)

In Portugal and in the African Countries of Portuguese Official Language it is common to use the title "Dr." (supposedly the abbreviation of "Doutor") in reference to people with "Licenciatura" degrees (a "Licenciatura" is something between a Bachelor and a Master Degree in most countries, and currently (Jan 2006) represents 4 or 5 years of graduate studies; except in the following Licenciaturas: Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medicine, Veterinary Medicine and Dental Medicine, which are six years long and the degree is equivalent to DPharm, DM/MD, etc. After the Bologna Process reform takes place in Portugal, it will have 3 to 4 years and be equivalent to any Bachelor degree in the E.U. countries that adopt this process). Some professionals have, however, different titles. For example: "Eng." (Engenheiro, Engineer), "Arq." (Arquitecto, Architect). The term Doctor" in Portugal is used for those with a PhD and, instead of the title "Dr.", use "Doutor" (the extended form) or "Professor Doutor" (because, usually, PhD's are university professors).

[edit] Russia

The USSR and many post-Soviet countries, including Russian Federation, have two-stage research degree obtaining path, generally similar to the doctorate system in Europe. The first stage is named "Kandidat of <...> Sciences" (for instance, Kandidat of Medical Sciences, of Chemical Sciences, of Philological Sciences, and so on). The Kandidat of Sciences degree is usually recognised as equivalent of Philosophy Doctor (PhD) and require at least (and typically more than) three years of post-graduate research which finished by defence of a thesis. Additionally, a seeker of the degree has to pass three examinations (so-called "Kandidate's minimum"): in his/her special field, in one foreign language, and in history and philosophy of science. After an additional certification by the corresponding experts the Kandidat degree may be recognized internationally as an equivalent of Ph.D. (An unconditional Ph.D. equivalence has been recognized before the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and the additional certification in many countries has become required after the steep increase flow of post-Soviet emigration.)

The second stage, Doktor nauk, "Doctor of <...> Sciences". It requires many years of research experience and writing of a second dissertation. A position of Professor can be held only by a Doctor of Sciences.

The degrees of Kandidat and Doktor of Sciences are only awarded by the special governmental agency (Higher Attestation Commission); a university or a scientific institute where the thesis was defended can only recommend to award a seeker the sought degree.

Acceptance of Russian scientists holding the degree of Candidate into a research filed in North America created a confusing situation when Soviet Doctoral graduates are equalized in rights with their undersupervized.

Soviet scientists holding degree of Candidate take positions of Post doctoral fellows, Post doctoral research associates etc.

[edit] Scandinavia

[edit] Denmark

In Denmark there are five levels of degrees: Bachelor's, Candidate's (may be compared to Master), Magister (similar to an MPhil in the United Kingdom system; a degree by research, higher than a Master's but lower than a Ph.D.), Ph.D. (replaced licentiate in 1988), and finally Dr., which is the higher doctorate.

For the higher doctorate, the candidate writes a major thesis and has to defend it orally at a formal disputation. In this disputation, the candidate (called præces) defends his thesis against two official opponents as well as opponents from the auditorium (ex auditorio). If the defence is successful, the candidate is awarded a Latin title (usually used abbreviated) according to his field; these titles include, but are not limited to:

  • dr. med. (doctor medicinæ) – Medicine
  • dr. jur. (doctor juris) – Law
  • dr. theol. (doctor theologiæ) – Theology
  • dr. phil. (doctor philosophiæ) – Philosophy (humanities)
  • dr. polit. (doctor politices) – Economics
  • dr. scient. (doctor scientiarum) – Science (natural sciences)
  • dr. techn. (doctor technices) – Technology/engineering
  • dr. ling. merc. (doctor linguæ mercantilis) – Professional language

[edit] Norway

These above degrees (and in addition dr. ing.) were also used in Norway, which traditionally used the same system as Denmark. Besides dr. philos, which is awarded to people who don't follow an organized degree program, new candidates are no longer awarded these degrees, but are instead awarded a Ph.D. The new Ph.D. degree was introduced in the early 2000s.

The Ph.D. in Norway is not a lower-level research doctorate.

[edit] Sweden

Swedish universities also confer higher doctoral degrees, similar to those of Denmark and Norway.

[edit] Slovakia and the Czech Republic

[edit] Professional doctorates in Slovakia and the Czech Republic

These degrees do not require completion of a thesis or dissertation and are awarded after completion of the required course of study.

  • Doctor of medicine (Medicinæ universæ doctor - MUDr.)
  • Doctor of dental medicine (Medicinæ dentalis doctor - MDDr., only in the Czech Republic)
  • Doctor of veterinary medicine (Medicinæ veterinariæ doctor - MVDr.)
  • Doctor of Pharmacology (PharmD)
  • Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP)

[edit] First-degree doctorates in Slovakia and the Czech Republic

These degrees require the viva-voce defense of a written thesis/dissertation. They are written before the name, as "JUDr. Smith", or usually abbreviated "Dr. Smith".

  • Doctor of philosophy (Philosophiæ doctor - PhDr.)
  • Doctor of natural sciences (Rerum naturalium doctor - RNDr.)
  • Doctor of pharmacy (Pharmaciæ doctor - PharmDr.)
  • Doctor of laws (Juris utrisque doctor - JUDr.)
  • Doctor of paedeutics (Paedagogiæ doctor - PaedDr., no longer used in the Czech Republic)
  • Doctor of theology (Theologiæ doctor - ThDr.)
  • Doctor of economy (Rerum commercialum doctor - RCDr., no longer used)
  • Doctor of social sciences (Rerum societarum doctor - RSDr., deprecated - used by communist regime)

[edit] Research doctorates in Slovakia and the Czech Republic

These degrees require the viva-voce defense of a written comprehensive thesis/dissertation. They are written after the name, that is, "Smith, PhD".

  • Candidate of sciences (Candidatus scientarum - CSc., since the 1990s replaced by common PhD.)
  • Doctor of philosophy (Philosophiae doctor - PhD., awarded since the 1990s; requires at least 3-year doctoral study)

[edit] Higher doctorates/Habilitation in Slovakia and the Czech Republic

  • Doctor of sciences (Doctor scientarum - DrSc., in the Czech Republic DSc. if awarded after 2002; D(r)Sc. replaces its prerequisite PhD./CSc.)
  • Doctor of arts (Artes doctor - ArtD.)
  • Doctor of theology (Theologiae doctor - ThD.)

Both Czech and Slovak orthography state that "philosophiae doctor" is abbreviated as "PhD." analogously to all of other degrees. However, perhaps under influence of international use of "Ph.D.", in the Czech law of scientific and academical degrees this foreign form is used. In fact, Czech lawgivers have enacted an orthographic mistake.

[edit] Spain

Doctoral programs are available in all universities. According to the current study plan, the doctorate is a three-year long course.

During the first year, the student must obtain 20 lecture credits (200 hours aprox). During the second year, he/she is required to write and a "thesis project" and support it with a presentation. If the projects receives approval from the university, he/she will receive a "Diploma de Estudios Avanzados" (part qualified doctor). The student must write his/her thesis during the third and final school year. Once published, he/she will receive the doctorate.

[edit] United Kingdom

All doctorates (except for those awarded honoris causa) granted by British universities are research doctorates in the sense described above, in that their main (and in many cases only) component is the submission of a thesis or portfolio of original research, examined by an expert panel appointed by the university.

Even the relatively new 'vocational doctorates' such as the EngD, EdD and DClinPsych require the submission of a body of original research of a similar length to a PhD thesis. In the case of the EngD, however, this might be in the form of a portfolio of technical reports on different research projects undertaken by the candidate as opposed to a single, long monographical thesis. Another important difference is that traditional PhD programs are mostly academic-oriented and normally require full-time study at the university, whereas, in an EngD program, the candidate typically works full-time for an industrial sponsor on application-oriented topics of direct interest to the partner company and is jointly supervised by university faculty members and company employees.

The PhD itself is a comparatively recent introduction to the UK, dating from 1917. It was originally introduced in order to provide a similar level of graduate research training as was available in several other countries, notably Germany and the USA. Previously, the only doctorates available were the higher doctorates, awarded in recognition of an illustrious research career.

The universities of Oxford and Sussex denote the degree of Doctor of Philosophy with the postnominal initials DPhil The University of York also did this for some years, switching to the more conventional PhD quite recently.

[edit] Higher doctorates in the United Kingdom

Higher doctorates are awarded in recognition of a substantial body original research undertaken over the course of many years. Typically the candidate will submit a collection of work which has been previously published in a peer-refereed context. Most universities restrict candidacy to graduates or academic staff of several years' standing. The most common examples of these degrees are as follows:

Of these, the DD historically ranked highest, theology being the senior faculty in the mediaeval universities. The degree of Doctor of Canon Law was next in the order of precedence, but (except for a brief revival during the reign of Mary Tudor) did not survive the Protestant reformation[1], a consequence of the fact that the teaching of canon law at Cambridge and Oxford was forbidden by Henry VIII, founder of the Church of England. The DMus was, historically, in an anomalous situation, since a candidate was not required to be a member of Convocation (that is, to be a Master of Arts). The DLitt and DSc are relatively recent innovations, dating from the latter part of the 19th century.

[edit] Honorary doctorates in the United Kingdom

Most British universities award degrees honoris causa in order to recognise individuals who have made a substantial contribution to a particular field. Usually an appropriate higher doctorate is used in these circumstances, depending on the achievements of the candidate. However, some universities, in order to differentiate between honorary and substantive doctorates, have introduced the degree of Doctor of the University (DUniv) for these purposes, and reserve the higher doctorates for formal academic research.

[edit] United States

[edit] Research doctorate in the United States

The most common types of research doctorates are a Ph.D. (Philosophiæ Doctor or Doctor of Philosophy) or a Ed.D. ("Doctor of Education"), though there are many other types of research doctorates.

The Doctor of Science degree (Sc.D. or D.Sc.) awarded by American universities is equivalent to the Ph.D. The Sc.D., which was first conferred in North America by Harvard University in 1872, is rarer than the Ph.D. (by comparison, the Ph.D. degree was first conferred in North America by Yale University in 1861, which established the first arts & sciences graduate school in North America in the 1840s.) However, the Sc.D. degree has long been awarded by leading institutions such as Harvard University, Johns Hopkins University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, etc. At many of these universities, the academic requirements for the Ph.D. and Sc.D. are identical.

[edit] Professional doctorates in the United States

In the United States, the first professional degrees in many clinical fields have the name "doctor" and are also known as "professional doctorates." Such fields include audiology, chiropractic, dentistry, medicine, occupational therapy, optometry, osteopathy, pharmacy, physical therapy, podiatry, psychology, veterinary medicine, and many others.

It is important to recognize that practitioners in these fields hold first-professional degrees, not graduate research degrees, and the level of research training is not academically equivalent to a Ph.D.[1] For example, professional doctoral education (such as medicine and law) does not generally require completion of a thesis/dissertation to graduate, a central component of Doctoral and most Master's level research degrees. There are some exceptions though, as some law schools and a small number of medical schools require that the candidate perform original research and write a formal research paper. Even when not a requirement, most medical students still conduct some form of academic research before residency, often leading to publication. The typical minimum term for such a degree (M.D.) is 4 years past postsecondary education. In addition, many academic fields allow individuals to pursue teaching and research careers within their field with a professional doctorate.

Not all fields have chosen to name (or rename as was the case in the field of law) their first professional degrees "doctorates". For example in accountancy it is the Master of Accountancy. Despite being named "masters" some masters degree programs may require about the same amount of time to complete as "professional doctorate" programs in other fields so the naming is somewhat arbitrary. For example, despite being a "masters" level degree, the first professional degree in architecture may require 3 to 3.5 years to complete. There is currently some debate in the architectural community to rename the degree to a "doctorate" in the manner that was done for the law degree decades ago.[2]

Titling of first professional degrees in the above-named fields as a "doctorate" is argued by some to be a uniquely American convention that is not utilized in most other countries. In many other countries, the "equivalent" degree is often a bachelor's or master's degree (for example, Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery, Bachelor of Law). U.S. law schools used to name their law degree the LL.B. (Bachelor of Laws) before renaming the degree to J.D. (Doctor of Jurisprudence). However, it should be noted that training for the M.D./D.O. is considerably longer in the U.S., which has a separate 4-year post-graduate school, thus a total of 8 years required, than in countries such as England where professional training is combined with the undergraduate education, to have a duration of 6 years total.

N.D. can also stand for the licensed professional title of Naturopathic Doctor conferred by licensing bodies. Note that the vast majority of jurisdictions in the United States do not recognize a Naturopathic Doctor or Doctor of Naturopathic Medicine.

[edit] Practitioner's doctorates in the United States

Other professional doctorates which are not 'first professional' as described above include post-Masters doctorates like the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) (which in many universities is also a research doctorate), the Doctor of Ministry (D.Min.), the Doctor of Health Science (D.H.Sc.), the Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.) and the Professional Doctorate (Prof.Doc.) or Doctor of Professional Studies (D.P.S. or D.Prof.). These generally require a Masters degree (such as a Master of Education, Master of Divinity, or a Master of Business Administration) and perhaps some professional post-bachelors experience (5 to 10 years or more in some cases) in a relevant field as an entry condition. These are also known as "practitioner's doctorates" due to their applied focus and target group of advanced practitioners of various professions.

A post-Masters dissertation of a comparable or slightly shorter length than that required for a PhD is usually a requirement for graduation. Additionally, post-Masters taught courses are a common feature. PhD programmes offered in countries like the UK, Australia and most commonwealth countries are typically solely based on the successful completion of an academically-focused dissertation. The distinction from practitioner's doctorates is that the latter allow candidates to learn more advanced topics through taught courses[citation needed].

The focus of a practitioner doctorate's dissertation is usually application, rather than creation, of theories. This focus appeals to non-academicians such as educators, teachers, business executives, leaders, civil servants and other practitioners who are more interested in the successful application of advanced theories in their respective professions rather than academic research into their field.

Generally, practitioner's doctorates as such are considered to be equivalent in academic standing to the PhD, though the latter is usually preferred for academic positions.

[edit] References

  1. ^ W N Hargreaves-Mawdsley, A History of Academical Dress in Europe Until the End of the Eighteenth Century, Oxford (1963) pages 103 and 115

[edit] See also

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Academic degrees
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