Hill fort
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A hill fort is a fortified refuge or defended settlement, located to exploit a rise in elevation for military advantage. The fortification usually follows the contours of the hill, consisting of one or more lines of earthworks, with stockades or defensive walls, and external ditches.
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[edit] European Bronze Age and Iron Age Hill Forts
Some European hill forts originate in the late Neolithic period, but they are most common during later periods:
- Urnfield culture (c. 1300 BC - 750 BC) Bronze Age
- Hallstatt culture (c. 1200 BC - 500 BC) late Bronze Age to early Iron Age
- La Tene culture (c. 600 BC - 50 AD) late Iron Age
Hill forts were in use in many Celtic areas of central and western Europe until the Roman conquest. Julius Caesar described the large late Iron Age hill forts he encountered during his campaigns in Gaul as oppida. By this time the larger ones had become more like cities than fortresses and many were assimilated as Roman towns.
Beyond the simple definition of hill fort, there is a wide variation in types and periods from the Bronze Age to the Middle Ages. Here are some considerations of general appearance and topology, which can be assessed without archaeological excavation:
- Location
- Hilltop Contour: the classic hill fort; an inland location with a hilltop defensive position surrounded by artificial ramparts or steep natural slopes. Examples: Brent Knoll, Mount Ipf.
- Inland Promontory: an inland defensive position on a ridge or spur with steep slopes on 2 or 3 sides, and artificial ramparts on the level approaches. Example: Lambert's Castle.
- Interfluvial: a promontory above the confluence of two rivers, or in the bend of a meander. Example: Kelheim.
- Lowland: an inland location without special defensive advantages (except perhaps marshes), but surrounded by artificial ramparts; typical of later settled oppida. Examples: Maiden Castle, Stonea Camp.
- Sea Cliff: a semi-circular crescent of ramparts backing on to a straight sea cliff; common on rocky Atlantic coasts, such as Ireland. Examples: Daw's Castle, Dinas Dinlle, Dún Aengus.
- Sea Promontory: a linear earthwork across a narrow neck of land leading to a peninsula with steep cliffs to the sea on three sides; common on indented Atlantic coasts, such as Ireland, Cornwall, Brittany and west Wales. Examples: The Rumps, Huelgoat.
- Sloping Enclosure: smaller earthwork on gently sloping hillsides; not significant defensive position. Examples: Trendle Ring, Plainsfield Camp.
- Area
- Ramparts, walls and ditches
- Univallate: a single circuit of ramparts for enclosure and defence.
- Multivallate: more than one layer of defensive earthworks, outer works might not be complete circuits, but defend the weakest approaches; typically the inner circuit is original, with outer circuits added later.
- Entrances
- Simple opening: might indicate an enclosure, rather than a defended position; sometimes the main ramparts may turn inward or outward, and be widened and heightened to control the entrance.
- Linear holloway: straight parallel pair of ramparts dominating the entrance; projecting either inward, outward, or occasionally overlapped along the main rampart.
- Complex: multiple overlapping outer works; staggered or interleaved multivallate ramparts; zig-zag entrance way, sling platforms and well planned lines of fire.
Some forts were also settlements, while others were only occupied seasonally, or in times of strife. Archaeological excavation reveals more about the dates of occupation and modes of use. Typical features for excavation include:
- Ramparts and ditches
- Original depths and profiles of ditches.
- Rampart construction: murus gallicus, pfostenschlitzmauer.
- Guardhouses and defended entrances.
- Settlement and occupation
- Raised platforms, roundhouses, longhouses.
- Post holes for rectangular granary huts.
- Pits for food storage, souterrains, fogous.
- Pottery
- Coins, jewellery and hoards.
- Temples and peacetime burials
- Platforms and temple foundations.
- Graves and offerings
- Warfare
- Weapons: sling-shot, shields, armour, swords, axes, spears, arrows.
- Sieges and conquest: ballista bolts, ash layers, vitrified stones, burnt post holes.
- Wartime burials: typically outside the ramparts:
- Contemporary individual burials by local inhabitants.
- Massed grave pits dug by a conquering army.
Hill forts were frequently occupied by conquering armies, but on other occasions the forts were destroyed, the local people forcibly evicted, and the forts left derelict. For example, Solsbury Hill was sacked and deserted during the Belgic invasions of southern Britain in the 1st century BC. Abandoned forts were sometimes reoccupied and refortified under renewed threat of foreign invasion, such as the Dukes' Wars in Lithuania, and the successive invasions of Britain by Romans, Saxons and Vikings.
[edit] Scandinavia and Russia
In Scandinavia and northern Russia, hill forts are fortifications from the Iron Age which may have had several functions. They are usually located on the crests of hills and mountains making use of precipices and marshes which worked as natural defenses. The crests' more accessible parts were defended with walls of stone and outer walls in the slopes beneath are common. Round and closed, so called, ring forts are common even on flat ground. The walls often have remaining parts of stone, which were probably the support of pales. They often have well delineated gateways, the gates of which were probably of wood. Hill forts with strong walls are often located beside old trading routes and have an offensive character, whereas others are reclusive and were weakly fortified, probably only for hiding during raids.
Many forts, located centrally in densely populated areas, were permanently settled strongholds and can show traces of settlements both inside and outside. Older place names containing the element sten/stein were usually hill forts.
In Sweden, there are 1100 known hill forts with a strong concentration on the northern west coast and in eastern Svealand. Only in Södermanland, there are 300, in Uppland 150, Östergötland 130 and Bohuslän and Gotland 90-100 each.
In Gotland, ring forts can be from the Pre-Roman Iron Age, but findings from the period 200 AD- 600 AD dominate. Many were still in use during the Middle Ages.
The Finnish word for hill fort is linnavuori (plural linnavuoret), from linna (English: castle) and vuori (English: mountain). Finnish castles were usually constructed of wood.
[edit] Examples
[edit] Lithuania
The Lithuanian word for hill fort is piliakalnis (plural piliakalniai), from pilis (English: castle) and kalnas (English: mountain, hill).
Lithuania has hill forts dating from the Bronze Age in the 1st millennium BC. The earliest examples in present day Lithuania are found in the east of the country. Most forts were built or refortified in the 5-15th centuries, when they were used in the Dukes' Wars for power, and against the invasion of Teutonic Knights from the west. Most forts were located on the banks of a river, or where two rivers met. The fortifications were typically wooden, although some had stone or brick walls. The hill was often sculpted for defence, with tops flattened for occupation, and natural slopes made steeper for defence.
During the early years of Grand Duchy of Lithuania piliakalnis played a major role in fights with the Livonian Order and Teutonic Knights. During that time the number of piliakalnis decreased, but their fortifications became stronger. Two main defense lines developed: one along the Neman River (against the Teutonic Order) and another along the border with Livonia. Two other lines started to form, but did not fully develop. One was protecting Vilnius, the capital, and another one at Samogitia, a major target for both orders since only this slice of land separated them.
Most of the castles were wooden and were quite easy to burn. As firearms and cannons developed, piliakalnis and their castles became ineffective. Also, the Livonian Order was defeated in 1236 in the Battle of the Sun. The Teutonic Knights suffered a major defeat in 1410 in the Battle of Grunwald and did not pose any further major threat.
According to the Lietuvos piliakalnių atlasas (English: Atlas of Piliakalnis in Lithuania), there were 826 piliakalnis in Lithuania. Some researchers present a total number of 840 known piliakalnis in 2007; the number is likely to increase as even more of them are discovered every year. Most piliakalnis are located near rivers and are endangered by erosion: many have partly collapsed as the flooded river has washed out the base of the hill. Now around 80 percent of piliakalnis are covered by forests and are hardly accessible to visitors.
[edit] Examples
[edit] See also
- Pilėnai, a heroic story of piliakalnis defense
- Kernavė, a World Heritage Site
- Hill of Crosses, former piliakalnis which now houses thousands of crosses
[edit] External links
- (Lithuanian) Reconstruction of piliakalniai
- (Lithuanian) Lithuanian description of piliakalnis (in pdf)
- (Lithuanian) Atlass of Piliakalnis in Lithuania
[edit] Britain
Hill forts in Britain are known from the Bronze Age, but the great period of hill fort construction was during the Iron Age, between 200 BC and the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. The Romans occupied some forts, such as the military garnison at Hod Hill, and the temple at Brean Down, but others were destroyed and abandoned. Mass graves at Cadbury Castle indicate it was involved in the Boudiccan revolt in 60-61 AD. Many of the place names of these sites bear the suffix "-bury", meaning fort.
Where Roman influence was less strong, such as uninvaded Ireland and unsubdued northern Scotland, hill forts were still built and used for several more centuries.
Some forts were reoccupied following the end of Roman rule, to defend against pirate raids, and the Anglo-Saxon invasions. The cemetery outside Poundbury Hill contains east-west Christian burials of the 4th century AD. The Wansdyke was a new linear earthwork connected to the existing hill fort at Maes Knoll, which defined the Celtic-Saxon border in south-west England during the period 577-652 AD.
Some hill forts were reoccupied by the Anglo-Saxons during the period of Viking raids. King Alfred established a network of coastal hill forts and lookout posts in Wessex, linked by a Herepath, or military road, which enabled his armies to cover Viking movements at sea. For example, see Daw's Castle and Cannington Hill.
After careful archaeological excavation, it has been found that many so-called hill forts were just used to pen in cattle, horses, or other domesticated animals. The large sprawling examples at Bindon Hill and Bathampton Down are more than 20 ha. Even those that were defensive settlements in the Iron Age, were sometimes used for coralling animals in later periods. For example, see Coney's Castle, Dolebury Warren and Pilsdon Pen.
[edit] Examples
[edit] References
- Iron Age Communities in Britain, Barry Cunliffe (1974) ISBN 0-7100-8725-X
- Iron Age Settlements and Pottery 650 BC - 60 AD, by Barry Cunliffe, and Hillforts and Hilltops 1000 BC - 1000 AD, by Ian Burrow, in The Archaeology of Somerset (1982) ISBN 0-86183-028-8
[edit] Ireland
The predominant type of defended settlement from prehistoric Ireland is the ring fort: a small circular area enclosed by a stone wall or earthen rampart. These were probably family homesteads with minimal defence against raids, thieves and wild animals, but not strategically important defensive sites at the tribal level. The largest examples, such as Garranes, Ballycatteen, Staigue, or Moneygashel, probably belonged to wealthy local lords. These ring-forts are similar to those found in Scotland (illustrated above) and Iberian castros (see below under Spain and Portugal).
A cashel is a small ring-fort built on a rocky outcrop, usually a site of refuge during raids, rather than a permanent settlement. Examples include Leacanabuaile near Cahirciveen, Carraig Aille at Lough Gur, and Cashlaungar.
The Atlantic coast of Ireland is very rocky and indented, and there are many sea-cliff and sea-promontory forts. A classic example of the sea-cliff fort is Dún Aengus on Inishmore in the Aran Islands, with a triple wall, and stone chevaux de frise. There are about 200 sea-promontory forts, where a short linear wall or rampart defends a rocky peninsula fringed with steep cliffs. Many of these are thought to date from the Iron Age, but very few have been excavated.
There are around 40 larger inland tribal hill forts, of a style similar to those found in Britain. About a quarter of these sites are univallate, with areas ranging from 0.4 ha at Dunbeg, to almost 16 ha at Dún Ailine. There are about 12 multivallate forts, as distinguished by multiple ramparts, or a large counterscarp (outer bank). The imposing example at Mooghaun is defended by multiple stone walls.
[edit] Examples
- Mooghaun, County Clare (multivallate)
- Rathgall, County Wicklow (multivallate)
- Brusselstown Ring, County Wicklow
- Grianán of Aileach, County Donegal (multivallate)
- Downpatrick, County Down
- Dún Ailinne, County Kildare
- Dunmurray Hill, County Kildare
- Clogher, County Tyrone
- Freestone Hill, County Kilkenny
- Caherconree, County Kerry
[edit] References
- Irish Hill-forts, Barry Raftery (1972)
- A Survey of Monuments of Archaeological and Historical Interest, Gerrard Ryan
[edit] Spain and Portugal
In Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria and Northern Portugal a castro is a fortified pre-Roman Iron Age Celtic village, usually located on a hill or some naturally easy defendable place. The larger castros are called citanias or cividades (English: cities).
Castros were located on hilltops, which allowed tactical control over the surrounding countryside and provided natural defenses. They invariably had a spring or small creek to provide water; some even had large reservoirs to use during sieges. Typically, a castro has a triple loose stone and earth wall, which complements the natural defenses of the hill. The houses inside are about 3.5–5 m long. Most of the houses are circular in shape, although some are rectangular and they are made out of stone with thatch roofs that rest on a wood column in the centre of the building. Their streets are somewhat regular, suggesting some form of central organization. Castros vary in diameter from dozens of metres to several hundred.
Castros were mostly places of refuge during the frequent Celtic tribal wars, although many, including all the citanias, were continuously inhabited, as well.
Many castros were already inhabited during the Bronze Age, long before the Celtic invasions, and it is thought that the Iberian culture of these settlements largely survived the Celtic influx, with which it blended, adopting the Celtic Language as a lingua franca with their commercial contacts along the Atlantic Coast.
Many of the megaliths from the Bronze Age such as menhirs and dolmens, which are frequently located near the castros, also predate the Celts in Portugal, Asturias and Galicia as well as in Atlantic France, Britain and Ireland. These megaliths were probably reused in syncretic rituals by the Celtic Druids.
Although many castros were destroyed by the Romans, others were expanded into proper cities.
The Celtiberian people occupied an inland region in central northern Spain, straddling the upper valleys of the Ebro, Douro and Tajo. They built hillforts, fortified hilltop towns and oppida, including Numantia.
[edit] Examples
- Castro de Coaña, Asturias, Spain [es]
- Castro de Baroña, Galicia, Spain
- Los Cogotas, Ávila, Spain
- Castro de Ulaca, Spain
- La Mesa De Miranda, Spain
- Numantia, Spain
- Citânia de Sanfins, Paços de Ferreira, Portugal
[edit] See also
[edit] France
The Gaulish hero Vercingetorix was famously besieged by Julius Caesar in the hill fort of Alesia. The predominant form of rampart construction was murus gallicus.
[edit] Examples
- Alesia
- Bibracte (Mont Beuvray)
- Mont St. Odile (Mur Païen)
- Le Camp d'Artus, Huelgoat
[edit] Central Europe
The Hallstatt and La Tene cultures originated in what is now southern Germany, Switzerland, Austria and the Czech Republic.
The predominant form of rampart construction is pfostenschlitzmauer, or Kelheim-style. The murus gallicus defenses at Manching were later earlier rebuilt and extended in the pfostenschlitzmauer style.
[edit] Examples
- Heuneburg, Württemberg, Germany
- Mount Ipf, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
- Kelheim, Bavaria, Germany
- Manching, Bavaria, Germany
- Staré Hradisko, Moravia, Czech Republic
- Závist, Bohemia, Czech Republic
- Třísov, Bohemia, Czech Republic
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- The Ancient Celts, Barry Cunliffe (1997) ISBN 0-14-025422-6
- Celtic Fortifications, Ian Ralston (2006) ISBN 0-7524-2500-5
[edit] New Zealand Māori Hill Forts
- Main article Pā (Māori)
The Māori people built hill forts, mostly in the country's North Island, during the Classic period (AD 1350-1800). Known as pa, the fortresses were sometimes sited atop extinct volcanoes and consisted of a settlement, sometimes even with cultivation plots, surrounded by ditches and banks. Wooden palisade fences ran atop the banks along with raised fighting platforms. During the New Zealand land wars, the design was gradually modified, with more below ground entrenchments, thick earthern ramparts and camouflage, to successfully resist British artillery, for example at Gate Pa in 1864.
[edit] Examples
[edit] Indian Hill Forts
India has a large number of hill forts, especially in the state of Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Maratha rulers like Chatrapati Shivaji formed a very complex and robust defense mechanism using hill forts against raids from Mughul rulers. The Maratha king Chatrapati Shivaji is credited to building and maintaining numerous hill forts in western Maharashtra.
[edit] Examples
Categories: Prehistory | Castro culture | History of Galicia | History of Portugal | Spanish architecture | History of Lithuania | Castles in Lithuania | Archaeology of Lithuania | Bronze Age Europe | European archaeology | Fortification | Iron Age Europe | Monument types | Stone Age Europe | Viking Age
