Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg

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Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg
Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg
Latin: Ruperto Carola Heidelbergensis
Motto: Semper apertus
Latin for "[The book of learning is] always open"
Established 1386
Type: Public university
Rector: Prof. Dr. Bernhard Eitel
Staff: 15,000+ academics;
400+ University Professors
Students: 25,562 (2007)
Location Heidelberg, Germany
Campus: Urban
Colors: Sandstone Red and Gold
               
Affiliations: LERU
Coimbra Group
EUA
Website: http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/
Data as of 2007

The Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg is a public, comprehensive research university located in Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Commonly referred to as University of Heidelberg, Ruperto Carola, and as simply Heidelberg, it is the oldest German university, and it is a designated flagship institution of the German higher education system.[1] The university consists of twelve faculties, and offers degree programs at undergraduate, graduate and postdoctoral level in a wide array of disciplines.[2]

More than 600 years of innovation and independence have made the University of Heidelberg one of Europe's leading research and teaching institutions. It was established in the town of Heidelberg, then the seat of Prince-Electors of the Holy Roman Empire, in 1386[3], and acted initially as a center for theologians and law experts from throughout the Holy Roman Empire. Having went into decline as a result of the Thirty Years' War, it re-emerged from relative obscurity in the early 19th century, quickly became a hub for independent thinkers, and developed into a stronghold of humanism.[4] Its refusal to submit to a set doctrine from the Catholic or Evangelical churches, and its ability to balance religion and science ensured a lasting reputation as a haven for open-mindedness.[5]

Heidelberg's modern roots are firmly in the sciences, but it retains its humanistic traditions with renowned law, philosophy, and theology faculties. Having some of the best science institutes in Europe on its doorstep, it is particularly research oriented. With approximately 1,000 doctorates successfully completed every year, the University of Heidelberg ranks among the internationally leading education venues for doctoral students.[6] International Students from about 130 countries usually account for more than 20 percent of the entire student body.[7] Heidelberg University is a founding member of the elite League of European Research Universities, the Coimbra Group, and the European University Association

Contents

[edit] History

[edit] Founding

University Library
University Library

The university was founded at the behest of Rupert I, Count Palatine of the Rhine, in order to provide faculties for the study of philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, and medicine.

The Great Schism in 1378, which split European Christendom into two hostile groups, was initiated by the election of two popes after the death of Pope Gregory XI in the same year. One successor was in Avignon (elected by the French) and the other in Rome (elected by the Italian cardinals). The German secular and spiritual leaders voiced their support for the successor in Rome, which had far reaching consequences for the German students and teachers in Paris: they lost their stipends and had to leave. Palatine Elector Ruprecht I recognized the opportunity and initiated talks with the Curia, which ultimately lead to the creation of the Papal Bull of Foundation which can be considered the establishment of the university.

On October 18, 1386 a ceremonial fair commemorated the opening of the doors of the university. As a motto for the seal, Marsilius von Inghen, the first rector of the university chose "Semper apertus" - the book of learning is always open. At this point in time, the city of Heidelberg could not have had more than 3500 inhabitants and in the first year of existence the university had almost 600 enrolled. On October 19, 1386 the first lecture was held. Thus, the University of Heidelberg is the oldest university in Germany (the first university in German-speaking world was established in Vienna in1365).

Carolinum (main administration building)
Carolinum (main administration building)

[edit] Early development

During the second half of the 16th century the university underwent a flowering time and was converted into a calvinistic institution in the reign of Elector Louis VI. It attracted scholars from all over the continent and developed to a cultural and academic centre of Europe. However, with the beginning of the Thirty Years' War in 1618, the intellectual and fiscal wealth of the university declined. In 1622 the then world-famous Bibliotheca Palatina, the library of the university, was stolen from the University Cathedral and brought to Rome.[8]

It was not until 1803 that this decline stopped. In this year, the university was reestablished as a state-owned institution by Karl Friedrich, Grand Duke of Baden and since then bears his name together with the one of Ruprecht I. One of the most influential students at that time was Karl Drais, inventor of the two-wheeler principle that started mechanized and later motorized personal transport. During the late 19th century, the Ruperto Carola housed a very liberal and open-minded spirit which was deliberately fostered by Max Weber, Ernst Troeltsch and a circle colleagues around them. In the Weimar Republic, the University was widely recognized as a centre of democratic thinking, coined by professors like Karl Jaspers, Gustav Radbruch, Martin Dibelius and Alfred Weber. Unfortunately, there were also dark forces working within the university: Nazi physicist Philipp Lenard was head of the physical institute during that time. Following the assassination of Walther Rathenau he refused to half mast the national flag on the institute, thereby provoking its storming by communist students.[9]

Old Assembly Hall in the Old University
Old Assembly Hall in the Old University

[edit] Nazi Era and 1950s

With the advent of the Third Reich the university, just like all other German universities, supported the Nazis and lost many of its dissident professors. But since Heidelberg was for the most part spared from destruction during the war, the reconstruction of the University was realised rather quickly. With the foundation of the Collegium Academicum, Heidelberg became the home of Germany's first and, until today, only self-governed student hall. Newly laid statutes obliged the university to "the living spirit of truth, justice and humanity".[10]

[edit] 1960s and 1970s

During the sixties and seventies, the university grew dramatically in size. In this time, the university developed into one of the main scenes of the left-wing student protests in Germany. In 1975, a massive police force arrested the entire student parliament "AStA". Shortly thereafter, the "Collegium Academicum", a progressive college in immediate vicinity to the universities main grounds, was stormed by over 700 police officers and closed once and for all. On the outskirts of the city, in the Neuenheimer Feld Area, a large campus for medicine and natural sciences was constructed.[11]

[edit] Structure

Today, about 25,000 students are enrolled for studies at the Ruperto Carola. More than 15,000 academic staff and over 400 University Professors[12] make it one of Germany's larger universities.

[edit] Faculties

A study in the library of the Faculty of Philosophy
A study in the library of the Faculty of Philosophy

After a structural reformation, the university consists of twelve faculties which in turn comprise several disciplines. As a consequence of the Bologna process, most faculties offer now Bachelor's, Master's, and PhD degrees in order to comply with the new European degree standard.

[edit] International Graduate Schools

Besides the various doctoral programs offered by the Heidelberg Graduate Academy, and in addition to the opportunity to pursue individual doctoral studies in all disciplines offered, instructed by an University Professor as dissertation adviser, the university has recently set up interdisciplinary international graduate schools offering PhD programs for outstanding graduates in relevant disciplines. As for most doctoral programs, the lectures, seminars, and tutorials will be held in English.

[edit] Research Institutes

Accessorily to the faculties, their respective institutes, and research centers, a number of independent, semi-independent, and inter-faculty research institutes take part in the educational tasks, including those listed below:

The Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy Heidelberg
The Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy Heidelberg

As one can see from the aforementioned lists, the Ruperto Carola is strongly dedicated towards fundamental research in humanities, natural sciences, and medicine. Although there is an increasing number of commercial sponsors, the University depends mostly on financial support by the state.

[edit] Academics

[edit] Reputation

The THES - QS World University Rankings[50][51][52][53] ranked Heidelberg University overall between 12th and 15th in Europe, between 45th and 60th in the world, and consistently as the foremost German university. Based on the overall academic peer review score of 2005, Heidelberg ranked 6th in Europe and 28th in the world. THES ranked Heidelberg world-wide between 17th and 43rd in life science and biomedicine, between 22nd and 45th in science, and between 41st and 61st in arts and humanities. The Shanghai Jiao Tong University's Academic Ranking of World Universities[54] ranked Heidelberg between 12th and 18th in Europe, and between 58th and 66th in the world. With these placings Heidelberg outranks many world-renowned institutions of higher education, such as most often two Ivy League universities. (Note that the THES - QS and Jiao Tong tables are the only annual comprehensive world university rankings, and that their methodologies are subject to controversy.)

According to the Ranking of Scientific Impact of Leading European Research Universities[55][56] compiled by the European Commission, which is commonly regarded as a highly reliable source, Heidelberg ranks 9th in Europe. The CHE Excellence Ranking[57], measuring academic performance of European graduate programs in biology, chemistry, mathematics, and physics, placed Heidelberg in the excellence group for physics and chemistry, and in the top group for mathematics and biology, which is overall a joint 9th place in Europe. Ranked by the number of Nobel Laureates affiliated with the university at the time of Nobel Prize announcement, Heidelberg is placed 4th in Europe and 13th in the world by 2007.[58] A study based on a survey of scientific journal referees created by Braun et al. in 2007 ranks the University of Heidelberg at the top of German universities in academic reputation.[59] The Times referred to Heidelberg University as "the oldest and most eminent in the country of Luther and Einstein" and as "the jewel of German learning".[60] In October 2007 Heidelberg was officially appointed "elite university" in line with an initiative started by the federal government, thus securing nine-digit additional funds.[61]

[edit] Organisation and length of courses

The academic year is divided into two semesters. The winter semester runs from 1st of October - 31st of March and the summer semester from 1st of April - 30th of September. Classes are held from mid-October to mid-February and mid-April to mid-July. Students can generally begin their studies either in the winter or the summer semester. However, there are several subjects students can begin only in the winter semester. The standard time required to finish a Bachelor's degree is principally 6 semesters, and a further 4 semesters for consecutive Master's degrees. The normal duration of PhD programs for full-time students is 6 semesters. The overall period of study for an undergraduate degree is divided into two parts: a period of basic study, lasting at least 4 semesters, at the end of which students must sit a formal examination, and a period of advanced study, lasting at least 2 semesters, after which students take their final examinations.

[edit] Tuition fees

Studying at German universities is heavily subsidized by the state in order to keep higher education affordable regardless of socio-economic background.[62] Therefore, Heidelberg charges tuition fees of approximately € 1,200 p.a., including student union fees, for undergraduate, consecutive Master's, and doctoral programs, for both EU and non-EU citizens, and for any subject area. The usual housing costs for on-campus dormitories range from € 2,200 to € 3,000 p.a.[63]

[edit] Admission

Admission to Heidelberg University is strictly merit-based, and is generally highly competitive.

Since in Germany the universities are basically obliged to grant permission to study as an undergraduate by having acquired the German equivalent of the high school degree, the selection is exercised by allocating the best qualified applicants to a given number of places available in the respective discipline. Thus, the selection depends primarily on the field of study and the grade point average of the higher education entrance qualification. Admission to the Faculties of Medicine, Biosciences, and Law is most competitive. Even graduating from high school at the top of one's class does not guaranty admission to these faculties. Some other faculties, in contrast, do not demand a minimum GPA and undergraduate admission is always granted if certain criteria (e.g. relevant language proficiency) are fulfilled. Acceptance rates are not published, and may vary significantly from faculty to faculty. For undergraduate studies a good command of German language is indispensable. Therefore, prospective undergraduate students must have passed the DSH before admission is granted.

Admisson to consecutive Master's programs always requires at least a "good" undergraduate degree (i.e., normally B+ in American, or 2:1 in British terms). However, some very popular Master's programs apply even higher entrance criteria. Except for the Master's programs taught in English, the DSH must be passed as well. PhD admission prerequisite is normally a strong Master's degree, but in exceptional cases an undergraduate degree can be sufficient. Moreover, most doctoral programs require academic references and hold interviews which focus on additional aspects such as intellectual brightness, creativity, imagination, poise, perseverance, critical view, independency in motivation, ability to work in a team, and aims of personal career. A language test for English is requested for all PhD applicants, and for applicants to anglophone Master's programs, except of native speakers coming from Australia, Canada, Great Britain, Ireland, and USA.

International applicants usually make up considerably more than 20 percent of the applicant pool, and are considered individually by the merits achieved in their respective state of origin. Provided having a suitable educational background, international students are encouraged to apply.

[edit] Campuses

Old town and Heidelberg Castle
Old town and Heidelberg Castle

Heidelberg is a city with approx. 140,000 inhabitants. It is situated in the Rhine Neckar Triangle, an European metropolitan area with approx. 2.4 million people living there, comprising the neighboring cities of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Ludwigshafen, and a number of smaller towns surrounding them. Heidelberg is known as the cradle of Romanticism, and its old town and castle are among the most frequented tourist destinations in Germany. Its pedestrian zone is a shopping and night life magnet for the surrounding area and beyond. Heidelberg is about 40 minutes by train away from Frankfurt International Airport.

Heidelberg University’s facilities are, generally speaking, separated in two parts. The faculties and institutes of humanities and social sciences are embedded in the old town. The sciences faculties and the medical school, including three large university hospitals, are located on the New Campus on the outskirts of Heidelberg.

[edit] Old Town Campus

The Old University (seat of the Rector and of the University Senate)
The Old University (seat of the Rector and of the University Senate)

The so-called New University can be regarded as the center of the Old Town Campus. It is situated in the pedestrian zone at University Square in direct neighbourhood to the University Library and to the main administration buildings. The New University was officially opened in 1931. Its erection was largely financed by donations of American tycoon families, such as Goldman, Sachs, Morgan, Chrysler, Ford, and many others, in line with a fundraising campaign of Jacob Gould Schurman, an alumnus of Heidelberg University and former US Ambassador to Germany.[64] It houses the new assembly hall, the largest lecture halls, and a number of smaller seminar rooms, mostly used by faculties of humanities and social sciences. The University Library, the largest library of the university, was opened in 1905 and has about 3.2 million books in stock[65], including the returned parts of the Bibliotheca Palatina. It is a popular working place for students and also houses two large internet lounges, a number of special collections, and changing exhibitions. Education in humanities and social sciences takes place to a great extent in the respective faculty buildings which are spread all over the ancient part of town, though, they are mostly a maximum of ten minutes walk away from University Square. The faculties maintain own extensive libraries, and working places for their students. Seminars and tutorials are usually held in the faculty buildings.

[edit] New Campus

River Neckar and New Campus
River Neckar and New Campus

The New Campus is located in the newest district of the town called Neuenheimer Feld. It is today the larger part of the university. Almost all science faculties and institutes, the medical school, the university hospitals, and the science branch of the University Library are situated at the New Campus. Most of the dormitories and the athletic facilities of the university can be found there as well. Lots of independent research institutes, such as the German Cancer Research Center, Max-Planck-Institutes, and the European Molecular Biology Laboratory have settled there. The New Campus is also seat of several biomedical spinn-off companies. The ancient part of the town can be reached by streetcar in about ten minutes. The Faculty of Physics and Astronomy is in an exceptional position since its faculty buildings are located in Heidelberg's exclusive residential area, overlooking the River Neckar, the ancient town, and the castle.

[edit] Facilities abroad

Heidelberg University has founded a Center for Latin America in Santiago de Chile in 2001.[66] It has the task of organising, managing, and marketing the courses of study maintained either independently by Heidelberg University or in cooperation with the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile and the University of Chile. Heidelberg University has arranged cooperation agreements with both of these universities, the two most important universities in Chile. The center has responsibility for programs of postgraduate education. It also coordinates the activities of Heidelberg University in Latin America, and provides a platform for scientific cooperation.

In addition, the university is currently about to set up a Heidelberg Center for North America, with similar tasks, in Amherst, Massachusetts.

[edit] Student life

[edit] Athletics

The university offers a broad variety of athletics, such as teams in 16 different court sports from American football to volleyball, courses in 11 different martial arts, 26 courses in fitness and body building, 9 courses in health sports from aquapower to yoga, and groups in 12 different dance styles. Moreover equestrian sports, sailing, rowing, skiing in the French alps, track and field, swimming, fencing, cycling, acrobatics, gymnastics, and much more. Most of the sports are free of charge.[67] Heidelberg’s competition teams are particularly successful in soccer, volleyball, equestrian sports, judo, karate, track and field, and basketball. The track and field team regularly achieves best placings at the German university championships. The University Sports Club's basketball team, USC Heidelberg, is the championship record holder, won 13 national championships, and is the only university team playing at a professional level in Germany's "Pro A" national league.[68]

[edit] Newspapers

Heidelberg’s student newspaper “ruprecht” is, with editions of more than 10.000 copies, one of Germany’s largest student-run newspapers. It was recently distinguished by the MLP Pro Campus Press Award as Germany’s best student newspaper. The jury, consisting of journalists of major newspapers, commended its “well balanced, though critical attitude”, and its “simply great” layout which “suffices highest professional demands”. The ruprecht is financed entirely by advertising revenues, thus retaining its independence from the university's management. Some very renowned journalists emerged from ruprecht’s editorial board.[69] Heidelberg is also home of Germany’s oldest student law review “StudZR”. The journal is published quarterly, at the beginning and end of each semester break, and is circulated throughout all of Germany.[70]

[edit] Corporations

Academic fencing in Heidelberg, 1900
Academic fencing in Heidelberg, 1900

Heidelberg hosts 34 student corporations. They have a long tradition, as most of them were founded in the 19th century, and are to some extent comparable to the fraternities in the US. As traditional symbols (couleur) corporation members wear colored caps and ribbons at ceremonial occasions (Kommers). Some corporations practice the traditional academic fencing, a kind of duell, in order to "shape their members for the challenges of life". In the 19th and early 20th century, corporations played an important role in Germany's student life. Today, however, corporations include only a relatively small number of students. Their self-declared mission is to keep academic traditions alive and to create frendships for life. The corporation's mostly representative 19th century mansions are present throughout the old town.

[edit] Night life

Heidelberg is not least famous for its student night life. Besides the various parties regularly organized by the student councils of the faculties, the semester opening and closing parties of the university, the dormitory parties, and the soirees of Heidelberg's 34 student fraternities, the city, and the metropolitan area even more, offers night life for any taste and budget. Located close to University Square is Heidelberg's major night life district, where one pub is placed next to each other. From Thursday on, it is all night very crowded and full of atmosphere. Moreover, Heidelberg has four major clubs playing black music, house, rock, and all time classics. The largest of them, having three floors, is located at the New Campus. The city of Mannheim, which is about triple as large as Heidelberg, is 15 minutes by train away, and offers an even more diverse night life, having a broad variety of clubs and bars well-frequented by Heidelberg's and Mannheim's student community.

[edit] Heidelberg University in popular culture

  • Mark Twain wrote as detailed as humorously about his impressions of Heidelberg's student life in A Tramp Abroad.[71]
  • The 1927 silent film The Student Prince in Old Heidelberg, based on a novel by Wilhelm Meyer-Förster, shows the story of a German prince who comes to Heidelberg to study there, but falls in love with a simple girl. Having been very popular in the in the first half of the 20th century, it presents the typical student life of the 19th and early 20th century, and it is today considered a masterpiece of the late silent film era.[72] MGM's 1954 color remake of the same is based on Sigmund Romberg's operetta version of the story.
  • The university was the main scene of the successful 2000 German horror film Anatomy. The medical student Paula Henning (played by Franka Potente) wins a place in a summer course at the prestigious Heidelberg Medical School. When the body of a young man she met on the train turns up on her dissection table, she begins to investigate the mysterious circumstances surrounding his death, uncovering a gruesome conspiracy perpetrated by an Antihippocratic secret society operating within the university.[73]

[edit] People associated with the university

Since 1386, a vast number of internationally renowned scholars have been affiliated with Heidelberg University, and it has produced an even greater number of notable alumni. Trying to compile a complete list of them must be foredoomed to failure. Therefore, the following is not meant to give more than an impression.

[edit] Arts and social sciences

G. W. F. Hegel
G. W. F. Hegel

Heidelberg has a strong tradition in the arts and social sciences. Max Weber and his brother Alfred both taught sociology and political economy at Heidelberg University. Carl Joachim Friedrich, the famous political scientist, sociologist Talcott Parsons, and psychologist, psychoanalyst, and humanistic philosopher Erich Fromm studied under the latter. Hannah Arendt completed her doctoral studies there, instructed by the existentialist philosopher-psychologist Karl Jaspers. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was a professor at Heidelberg. His then world-wide predominant school of thought had a stong influence on Heidelberg’s students, so that some of them, such as Ludwig Feuerbach, became world-renowned philosophers themselves. Even important contemporary philosophers taught there. The critical theorist Jürgen Habermas held a chair at Heidelberg, where he maintained a congenial collaboration with his fellows Karl-Otto Apel and Hans-Georg Gadamer. The influential logicians and mathematicians Leo Königsberger and Emil Gumbel both held chairs there as well. Moreover, Heidelberg enjoys a long tradition in jurisprudence. Some of the most important fellows in this branch were certainly Friedrich Carl von Savigny, Anton Friedrich Justus Thibaut, Georg Jellinek and Gustav Radbruch, who was also Federal Minister of Justice. The same is true for divinity. The Lutheran reformer Philipp Melanchthon, the Old Testament’s scholars Gerhard von Rad, his successor Claus Westermann, and the New Testament's expert Martin Dibelius were especially notable figures in the field of religious studies. Even in other branches of arts, Heidelberg has a number of notable alumni. The historian Ernst Hartwig Kantorowicz was educated at the university, just as Wilhelm Wundt was, who is regarded as the father of psychology. Robert Schumann, the classical composer, attendet the university as well.

[edit] Medicine and natural sciences

Today, Heidelberg is particularly strong in sciences. Besides such pioneers of their fields as Ludolf von Krehl was for medicine, Robert Bunsen for chemistry, Gustav Kirchhoff for physics, Hermann von Helmholtz for both physiology and physics, and Alfred Wegener for earth sciences, an impressive number of Nobel Laureates have been affiliated with the university. A distinctive fact is, that most of them received the award during their lectureship at Heidelberg, and for research achievements largely accomplished there.[74] Heidelberg's Physics Nobel Laureates are Philipp Lenard, Walther Bothe, Max Born, J. Hans D. Jensen, Wolfgang Ketterle, and Theodor W. Hänsch. In medicine or physiology, the university's Nobel Laureates are Albrecht Kossel, Otto Fritz Meyerhof, Otto Heinrich Warburg, and Bert Sakmann, who is currently a fellow of the MPIMF in Heidelberg. Other Nobel Laureates who were fellows of the MPIMF, which is financially independent but closely associated with the university, are Fritz Lipmann, Severo Ochoa, Rudolf Mößbauer, André Lwoff, and George Wald. Even in chemistry, Heidelberg University notes four Nobel Laureates: Adolf von Baeyer, Fritz Haber, Richard Kuhn, and Georg Wittig.

[edit] Political and social life

Helmut Kohl
Helmut Kohl

Since the Middle Ages, lots of leading figures from aristocracy, political, social, and business life obtained higher education at Heidelberg. Among them are Constantine I, King of Greece and Rangsit, Prince Regent of Thailand. Furthermore the statesmen Frederick II, Grand Duke of Baden, Prince Maximilian of Baden, last Chancellor of the German Empire, Johann von Miquel, Hugo Preuß, Rudolf Heinze, George Bancroft, and Charles McLaren, 1st Baron Aberconway. International industrialists and financiers like Baron Mayer Amschel de Rothschild, Georg Wilhelm von Siemens, and Heinrich, Baron Thyssen-Bornemisza de Kászon were educated there as well. Besides these rather historical figures, a number of outstanding contemporary German politicians also attended the university, such as Helmut Kohl, the 6th Chancellor of the Federal Republic, Bernhard Vogel, who was Prime Minister of two German federal states, Andreas von Bülow, the former Federal Minister for Research and Technology, Reinhard Bütikofer, the Chairman of the Green Party of Germany, and Hans-Christian Stroebele, the Deputy Parliamentary Leader of Germany's Green Party. Paul Kirchhof, former Justice of the German Constitutional Court, currently teaches public law there.

[edit] Poetry and prose

As Heidelberg is deeply coined by Romanticism, its beautiful old town, and its stunning landscape surround has inspired poets and literates for centuries. Some of them were also educated there. Good examples are Joseph von Eichendorff, Jean Paul, William Somerset Maugham, Gottfried Keller, Christian Friedrich Hebbel, Constantin Virgil Gheorghiu, Heinrich Hoffmann, and Golo Mann. Especially notable alumni are also José Rizal and Sir Muhammad Iqbal, who both were not only literates, but became national heroes and political icones of their countries.

[edit] References

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  12. ^ Conferences 2007: Welcome to Heidelberg
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  62. ^ As a benchmark: The effective costs which the state must pay for every single medical student account for approximately €33,000 (=$48,500) per year. See http://www.unifr.ch/ztd/ems/berichte/b2/testergebnisse.htm
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  69. ^ http://www.ruprecht.de/fileadmin/pdf/Presseberichte/2007_10_07_RNZ.pdf
  70. ^ http://www.studzr.de/html/menu_oben/uberuns_en.html
  71. ^ http://www.gutenberg.org/files/119/119-h/119-h.htm
  72. ^ http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0018451/
  73. ^ http://wm05.allmovie.com/cg/avg.dll?p=avg&sql=1:212148
  74. ^ http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/lists/universities.html

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

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