Commonwealth of Nations

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Commonwealth of Nations
Flag of the Commonwealth of Nations
Flag
Location of the Commonwealth of Nations
The Commonwealth of Nations as of 2008
Headquarters Marlborough House, London, UK
Language English
Membership 53 sovereign states
Leaders
 -  Head of the Commonwealth Queen Elizabeth II
 -  Secretary-General Kamalesh Sharma Appointed 24 November 2007 and will take office 1 April 2008
Establishment
 -  Balfour Declaration 18 November 1926 
 -  Statute of Westminster 11 December 1931 
 -  London Declaration 28 April 1949 
Area
 -  Total 31,462,574 km² 
12,147,768 sq mi 
Population
 -  2005 estimate 1,921,974,000 
 -  Density 61.09/km² 
158.2/sq mi
Website
thecommonwealth.org

The Commonwealth of Nations, usually known as the Commonwealth and sometimes as the British Commonwealth, is a voluntary association of 53 independent sovereign states, most of which are former British colonies (the exceptions being the United Kingdom itself and Mozambique).

The Commonwealth is an international organisation through which countries with diverse social, political, and economic backgrounds co-operate within a framework of common values and goals, outlined in the Singapore Declaration.[1] These include the promotion of democracy, human rights, good governance, the rule of law, individual liberty, egalitarianism, free trade, multilateralism, and world peace.[2]

Queen Elizabeth II is the Head of the Commonwealth, recognised by each state, and as such is the symbol of the free association of the organisation's members. This position, however, does not imply political power over Commonwealth member states. In practice, the Queen heads the Commonwealth in a symbolic capacity, and it is the Commonwealth Secretary-General who is the chief executive of the organisation. The Commonwealth is not a political union, and does not allow the United Kingdom to exercise any power over the affairs of the organisation's other members.

Elizabeth II is also the Head of State, separately, of sixteen members of the Commonwealth, called Commonwealth realms. As each realm is an independent kingdom, Elizabeth II, as monarch, holds a distinct title for each, though, by a Prime Ministers' Conference in 1952, all include the words "Head of the Commonwealth" at the end; for example: Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of Jamaica and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth. Beyond the realms, the majority of the members of the Commonwealth have their own, separate Heads of State: thirty-two members are Commonwealth republics and five members have their own monarchs (Sultan of Brunei, King of Lesotho, Supreme Ruler of Malaysia, King of Swaziland, and King of Tonga).

Every four years the Commonwealth's members celebrate the Commonwealth Games, the world's second-largest multi-sport event after the Olympic Games.

Contents

[edit] History

[edit] Origins

Although performing a vastly different function, the Commonwealth is the successor of the British Empire. In 1884, whilst visiting Adelaide, South Australia, Lord Rosebery described the changing British Empire, as some of its colonies became more independent, as a "Commonwealth of Nations".

Conferences of British and colonial Prime Ministers had occurred periodically since 1887, leading to the creation of the Imperial Conferences in the late 1920s.[3] The formal organisation of the Commonwealth developed from the Imperial Conferences, where the independence of the self-governing colonies and especially of dominions was recognised. The Irish Oath of Allegiance, agreed in 1921, included the Irish Free State's adherence to and membership of the group of nations forming the British Commonwealth of Nations. In the Balfour Declaration at the Imperial Conference in 1926, Britain and its dominions agreed they were equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations. This relationship was eventually formalised by the Statute of Westminster in 1931.

[edit] Remaining members gain independence

After World War II, the Empire was gradually dismantled, partly owing to the rise of independence movements in the then-subject territories and partly owing to the British Government's straitened circumstances resulting from the cost of the war. The word "British" was dropped in 1949 from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect the changing position.[4] Burma (a.k.a. Myanmar, 1948), and Aden (1967) are the only former colonies not to have joined the Commonwealth upon post-war independence. Among the former protectorates and mandates, Egypt (independent in 1922), Iraq (1932), Transjordan (1946), Palestine (became in part, the state of Israel in 1948), Sudan (1956), Kuwait (1961), Bahrain (1971), Oman (1971), Qatar (1971), and the United Arab Emirates (1971) never became members of the Commonwealth. The Republic of Ireland left the Commonwealth upon becoming a republic in 1949. However, the Ireland Act 1949 passed by the Parliament of Westminster gave citizens of the Republic of Ireland a status similar to that of other citizens of the Commonwealth in UK law.

[edit] Members not under the House of Windsor

The issue of countries with constitutional structures that did not operate based on the shared Crown, but who wished to remain members of the Commonwealth, was resolved in April 1949 at a Commonwealth prime ministers' meeting in London. Under the London Declaration, India agreed that when it became a republic in January 1950 it would accept the King as "symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such Head of the Commonwealth". The other Commonwealth countries in turn recognised India's continuing membership of the association. (At Pakistan’s insistence, India was not regarded as an exceptional case and it was assumed that other states would be accorded the same treatment as India.) The London Declaration is often seen as marking the beginning of the modern Commonwealth, and following India's precedent, other nations moved to become republics, or constitutional monarchies under a different Royal House.

[edit] Old, New and White Commonwealth

As the Commonwealth grew, Britain and pre-1945 Dominions (a term formally dropped in the 1940s) became informally known as the "Old Commonwealth", particularly since the 1960s when some of them disagreed with poorer, African and Asian (or New Commonwealth) members about various issues at Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings. Accusations that the old, "White" Commonwealth had different interests from African Commonwealth nations in particular, and charges of racism and colonialism arose during heated debates about Rhodesia in the 1960s and 1970s, the imposition of sanctions against apartheid-era South Africa in the 1980s and, more recently, about whether to press for democratic reforms in Nigeria and then Zimbabwe.[citation needed] The term New Commonwealth is also used in the United Kingdom (especially in the 1960s and 1970s) to refer to recently decolonised countries, which are predominantly non-white and underdeveloped. It was often used in debates about immigration from these countries.[citation needed]

In recent years, the term "White Commonwealth" has been used in a derogatory sense to imply that the wealthier, white nations of the Commonwealth had different interests and goals from the non-white, and particularly the African members. Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe has used the term frequently to allege that the Commonwealth's attempts to force political changes in his country is motivated by racism and colonialist attitudes and that the White Commonwealth dominates the Commonwealth of Nations as a whole.[citation needed]

[edit] Membership

[edit] Membership criteria

The criteria for membership of the Commonwealth of Nations have developed over time from a series of separate documents. The Statute of Westminster 1931, as the fundamental founding document of the organisation, laid out that membership required dominionhood. The 1949 London Declaration ended this, allowing republican and indigenous monarchic members on the condition that they recognised the British monarch as the 'Head of the Commonwealth'.[5] In the wake of the wave of decolonisation in the 1960s, these constitutional principles were augmented by political, economic, and social principles. The first of these was set out in 1961, when it was decided that respect for racial equality would be a requisite of membership, leading directly to the withdrawal of South Africa's re-application (which they were required to make under the formula of the London Declaration upon becoming a republic). The fourteen points of the 1971 Singapore Declaration dedicated all members to the principles of world peace, liberty, human rights, equality, and free trade.[2]

These criteria were unenforceable for two decades,[6] until, in 1991, the Harare Declaration was issued, dedicating the leaders to applying the Singapore principles to the completion of decolonisation, the end of the Cold War, and the fall of Apartheid in South Africa.[7] The mechanisms by which these principles would be applied were created, and the manner clarified, by the 1995 Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme, which created the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG), which has the power to rule on whether members meet the requirements for membership under the Harare Declaration.[8] Also in 1995, an Inter-Governmental Group was created to finalise and codify the full requirements for membership. Upon reporting in 1997, as adopted under the Edinburgh Declaration, the Inter-Governmental Group ruled that any future members would have to have a direct constitutional link with an existing member.[9]

In addition to this new rule, the former rules were consolidated into a single document. These requirements, which remain the same today, are that members must:

These requirements are undergoing review, and a report on potential amendment is to be presented to the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2007.[10] New members will not be admitted at the 2007 CHOGM, with 2009 set as the earliest date of entry.[11]

[edit] Members

Countries whose membership is suspended are shown in Bold text.

Note: The table can be sorted alphabetically or chronologically using the "><" icon.

Country Joined Capital Population Land area (km²)
Flag of Antigua and Barbuda Antigua and Barbuda 1981 St. John's &&&&&&&&&&081000.&&&&&081,000 &&&&&&&&&&&&0442.&&&&&0442
Flag of Australia Australia 1931 Canberra &&&&&&&021134563.&&&&&021,134,563 &&&&&&&&07741220.&&&&&07,741,220
Flag of the Bahamas Bahamas 1973 Nassau &&&&&&&&&0319000.&&&&&0319,000 &&&&&&&&&&013878.&&&&&013,878
Flag of Bangladesh Bangladesh 1972 Dhaka &&&&&&0139215000.&&&&&0139,215,000 &&&&&&&&&0143998.&&&&&0143,998
Flag of Barbados Barbados 1966 Bridgetown &&&&&&&&&0269000.&&&&&0269,000 &&&&&&&&&&&&0430.&&&&&0430
Flag of Belize Belize 1981 Belmopan &&&&&&&&&0264000.&&&&&0264,000 &&&&&&&&&&022966.&&&&&022,966
Flag of Botswana Botswana 1966 Gaborone &&&&&&&&01769000.&&&&&01,769,000 &&&&&&&&&0581730.&&&&&0581,730
Flag of Brunei Brunei 1984 Bandar Seri Begawan &&&&&&&&&0366000.&&&&&0366,000 &&&&&&&&&&&05765.&&&&&05,765
Flag of Cameroon Cameroon 1995 Yaounde (constitutional)
Douala (economic)
&&&&&&&016038000.&&&&&016,038,000 &&&&&&&&&0475442.&&&&&0475,442
Flag of Canada Canada 1931 Ottawa &&&&&&&033039967.&&&&&033,039,967 &&&&&&&&09970610.&&&&&09,970,610
Flag of Cyprus Cyprus 1961 Nicosia &&&&&&&&&0826000.&&&&&0826,000 &&&&&&&&&&&09251.&&&&&09,251
Flag of Dominica Dominica 1978 Roseau &&&&&&&&&&079000.&&&&&079,000 &&&&&&&&&&&&0751.&&&&&0751
Flag of Fiji Fiji1 1970
1997
Suva &&&&&&&&&0841000.&&&&&0841,000 &&&&&&&&&&018274.&&&&&018,274
Flag of The Gambia Gambia 1965 Banjul &&&&&&&&01478000.&&&&&01,478,000 &&&&&&&&&&011295.&&&&&011,295
Flag of Ghana Ghana 1957 Accra &&&&&&&021664000.&&&&&021,664,000 &&&&&&&&&0238533.&&&&&0238,533
Flag of Grenada Grenada 1974 St. George's &&&&&&&&&0102000.&&&&&0102,000 &&&&&&&&&&&&0344.&&&&&0344
Flag of Guyana Guyana 1966 Georgetown &&&&&&&&&0750000.&&&&&0750,000 &&&&&&&&&0214969.&&&&&0214,969
Flag of India India 1947 New Delhi &&&&&01087124000.&&&&&01,087,124,000 &&&&&&&&03166414.&&&&&03,166,414
Flag of Jamaica Jamaica 1962 Kingston &&&&&&&&02639000.&&&&&02,639,000 &&&&&&&&&&010991.&&&&&010,991
Flag of Kenya Kenya 1963 Nairobi &&&&&&&033467000.&&&&&033,467,000 &&&&&&&&&0580367.&&&&&0580,367
Flag of Kiribati Kiribati 1979 Tarawa &&&&&&&&&&097000.&&&&&097,000 &&&&&&&&&&&&0726.&&&&&0726
Flag of Lesotho Lesotho 1966 Maseru &&&&&&&&01798000.&&&&&01,798,000 &&&&&&&&&&030355.&&&&&030,355
Flag of Malawi Malawi 1964 Lilongwe &&&&&&&012608000.&&&&&012,608,000 &&&&&&&&&0118484.&&&&&0118,484
Flag of Malaysia Malaysia 1957 Kuala Lumpur &&&&&&&027356000.&&&&&027,356,000 &&&&&&&&&0329847.&&&&&0329,847
Flag of the Maldives Maldives 1982 Malé &&&&&&&&&0321000.&&&&&0321,000 &&&&&&&&&&&&0298.&&&&&0298
Flag of Malta Malta 1964 Valletta &&&&&&&&&04.0E+5.Expression error: Unrecognised word "e"400,000 &&&&&&&&&&&&0316.&&&&&0316
Flag of Mauritius Mauritius 1968 Port Louis &&&&&&&&01233000.&&&&&01,233,000 &&&&&&&&&&&02040.&&&&&02,040
Flag of Mozambique Mozambique 1995 Maputo &&&&&&&019424000.&&&&&019,424,000 &&&&&&&&&0801590.&&&&&0801,590
Flag of Namibia Namibia 1990 Windhoek &&&&&&&&02009000.&&&&&02,009,000 &&&&&&&&&0824292.&&&&&0824,292
Flag of Nauru Nauru² 1968 Yaren (unofficial) &&&&&&&&&&013000.&&&&&013,000 &&&&&&&&&&&&&021.&&&&&021
Flag of New Zealand New Zealand 1931 Wellington &&&&&&&&04109000.&&&&&04,109,000 &&&&&&&&&0270534.&&&&&0270,534
Flag of Nigeria Nigeria³ 1960
1999
Abuja &&&&&&0128709000.&&&&&0128,709,000 &&&&&&&&&0923768.&&&&&0923,768
Flag of Pakistan Pakistan4 1947
1989
2004
Islamabad &&&&&&0161488000.&&&&&0161,488,000 &&&&&&&&&0880940.&&&&&0880,940
Flag of Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea 1975 Port Moresby &&&&&&&&05772000.&&&&&05,772,000 &&&&&&&&&0462840.&&&&&0462,840
Flag of Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Kitts and Nevis 1983 Basseterre &&&&&&&&&&042000.&&&&&042,000 &&&&&&&&&&&&0261.&&&&&0261
Flag of Saint Lucia Saint Lucia 1979 Castries &&&&&&&&&0159000.&&&&&0159,000 &&&&&&&&&&&&0539.&&&&&0539
Flag of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Saint Vincent and the Grenadines   1979 Kingstown &&&&&&&&&0118000.&&&&&0118,000 &&&&&&&&&&&&0388.&&&&&0388
Flag of Samoa Samoa 1970 Apia &&&&&&&&&0184000.&&&&&0184,000 &&&&&&&&&&&02831.&&&&&02,831
Flag of the Seychelles Seychelles 1976 Victoria &&&&&&&&&&080000.&&&&&080,000 &&&&&&&&&&&&0455.&&&&&0455
Flag of Sierra Leone Sierra Leone 1961 Freetown &&&&&&&&05336000.&&&&&05,336,000 &&&&&&&&&&071740.&&&&&071,740
Flag of Singapore Singapore 1965 Singapore &&&&&&&&04237000.&&&&&04,237,000 &&&&&&&&&&&&0683.&&&&&0683
Flag of the Solomon Islands Solomon Islands 1978 Honiara &&&&&&&&&0466000.&&&&&0466,000 &&&&&&&&&&028896.&&&&&028,896
Flag of South Africa South Africa5 1931
1994
Pretoria (executive)
Bloemfontein (judicial)
Cape Town (legislative)
&&&&&&&047208000.&&&&&047,208,000 &&&&&&&&01221037.&&&&&01,221,037
Flag of Sri Lanka Sri Lanka 1948 Sri Jayawardhanapura Kotte   
 
&&&&&&&020570000.&&&&&020,570,000 &&&&&&&&&&065610.&&&&&065,610
Flag of Swaziland Swaziland 1968 Mbabane &&&&&&&&01034000.&&&&&01,034,000 &&&&&&&&&&017364.&&&&&017,364
Flag of Tanzania Tanzania 1961 Dodoma &&&&&&&037627000.&&&&&037,627,000 &&&&&&&&&0945087.&&&&&0945,087
Flag of Tonga Tonga 1970 Nuku'alofa &&&&&&&&&0102000.&&&&&0102,000 &&&&&&&&&&&&0747.&&&&&0747
Flag of Trinidad and Tobago Trinidad and Tobago 1962 Port of Spain &&&&&&&&01301000.&&&&&01,301,000 &&&&&&&&&&&05130.&&&&&05,130
Flag of Tuvalu Tuvalu 1978 Funafuti &&&&&&&&&&010000.&&&&&010,000 &&&&&&&&&&&&&026.&&&&&026
Flag of Uganda Uganda 1962 Kampala &&&&&&&025827000.&&&&&025,827,000 &&&&&&&&&0241038.&&&&&0241,038
Flag of the United Kingdom United Kingdom 1931 London &&&&&&&060609155.&&&&&060,609,155 &&&&&&&&&0242900.&&&&&0242,900
Flag of Vanuatu Vanuatu 1980 Port Vila &&&&&&&&&0207000.&&&&&0207,000 &&&&&&&&&&012189.&&&&&012,189
Flag of Zambia Zambia 1964 Lusaka &&&&&&&011479000.&&&&&011,479,000 &&&&&&&&&0752618.&&&&&0752,618
Total &&&&&01921974000.&&&&&01,921,974,000 &&&&&&&031462574.&&&&&031,462,574

1 Left 1987, rejoined 1997, suspended since 2006.
2 Special member status 1968 to 1999, again since 2006.
3 Suspended between 1995 and 1999.
4 Left in 1972, rejoined in 1989, was suspended in 1999, readmitted in 2004 and suspended again in 2007.
5 Left 1961, rejoined 1994.

[edit] Member information

The Commonwealth comprises fifty-three of the world's countries and has a combined population of 1.9 billion people, almost a third of the world population and over twice as many as the whole of the Americas (North and South) put together. Of that figure, 1.4 billion people live in the Indian subcontinent, and 93% live in Asia and Africa combined.

The total GDP is about US$7.8 trillion (about 16% of the total world economy).[citation needed] The land area of the Commonwealth nations is about 31.5 million km² (12.1 million square miles), or about 21% of the total world land area.

The five largest Commonwealth nations by population are India (1.1 billion), Pakistan (165 million), Bangladesh (148 m), Nigeria (137 m), and the United Kingdom (60 m). Tuvalu is the smallest member, with only 11,000 people.

The three largest Commonwealth nations by area are Canada at 3.8 million square miles, Australia at 3.0 million square miles, and India at 1.2 million square miles.

The largest military spenders are the United Kingdom at GBP£33.4 billion (US$66.8 billion), India at GBP£10.6 billion (US$21 billion), and Australia and Canada at GBP£5.3 billion (US$10.5 billion) respectively.[citation needed] The Commonwealth of Nations is not a military alliance. See: List of countries by military expenditures.

Nauru joined as a "Special Member", but was a full member from May 1999 to January 2006 when it reverted back. [12]

Flags of the members of the Commonwealth in Horse Guards Road, next to the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, London.
Flags of the members of the Commonwealth in Horse Guards Road, next to the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, London.

Membership is open to countries that accept the association's basic aims and have a present or past constitutional link to a Commonwealth member. Not all members have had direct constitutional ties to Britain: some South Pacific countries were formerly under Australian or New Zealand administration, while Namibia was governed by South Africa from 1920 until independence in 1990. Cameroon joined in 1995 although only a fraction of its territory had formerly been under British administration through the League of Nations mandate of 1920–46 and United Nations Trusteeship arrangement of 1946–61. There is only one member of the present Commonwealth that has never had any constitutional link to the British Empire or a Commonwealth member: Mozambique, a former Portuguese colony, was admitted in 1995 on the back of the triumphal re-admission of South Africa and Mozambique's first democratic elections, held in 1994. The move was supported by Mozambique's neighbours, all of whom were members of the Commonwealth and who wished to offer assistance in overcoming the losses incurred from the country's opposition to white minority regimes in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and South Africa. In 1997, amid some discontent, Commonwealth Heads of Government agreed that Mozambique's admission should be seen as a special case and not set a precedent.[citation needed] Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan) joined in 1972 in its own right after breaking away from Pakistan (formerly West Pakistan), which was a member until it left later in the same year.

[edit] Non-members

[edit] Non-applicants

Egypt, Burma and Iraq have never shown an interest in joining the Commonwealth, although they are eligible to do so, having histories of British rule. Sudan, Somalia, Eritrea, Bahrain, Kuwait, Jordan and Oman similarly are not members. Other countries with historical links to the United Kingdom or other Commonwealth countries that could theoretically be Commonwealth members, but have shown no indication of a wish to join, include Nepal, Bhutan, Afghanistan, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates.

The United States declared its independence from Britain in 1776, which is more than 100 years before Lord Rosebery coined the term Commonwealth of Nations. Consequently, it is not a member. In addition to the original Thirteen Colonies, Hawaii (which still retains the Union Jack in its flag), Alaska, Washington state, and Oregon were all under post-1776 exploration by various British captains such as James Cook, and his protégé George Vancouver. The British had settlements in what is now the United States up until the Oregon Treaty of 1846.

France secretly considered membership in the 1950s, under the leadership of Prime Minister Guy Mollet. In the context of nationalisation of the Suez Canal, colonial unrest, and increasing tensions between British-backed Jordan and French-backed Israel, Mollet saw a union between Britain and France as a possible solution. A British Government document of the time reported "That the French would welcome a common citizenship arrangement on the Irish basis". The request was turned down by the British prime minister Anthony Eden, along with a request for Commonwealth membership, and a year later France signed the Treaty of Rome with Germany and the other founding nations of the Common Market, later to become the EU. [13]

[edit] Applicants

Rwanda (since 2003), Sudan, Algeria, Madagascar and Yemen have applied to join the Commonwealth, and there was some interest expressed by Israel (being formerly administered by the United Kingdom) and the Palestinian National Authority.[14]

Other eligible applicants could come from any of the remaining inhabited British overseas territories, Crown dependencies, Australian external territories and Associated States of New Zealand if any later become fully independent.[15] Many such jurisdictions are already directly represented within the Commonwealth, particularly through the Commonwealth Family.[16]

See also: Commonwealth of Nations membership criteria: Prospective members

[edit] Suspensions

In recent years the Commonwealth has suspended several members "from the Councils of the Commonwealth" for failure to uphold democratic government. Suspended members are not represented at meetings of Commonwealth leaders and ministers, although they remain members of the organisation.

Fiji, which was not a member of the Commonwealth between 1987 and 1997 as a result of a republican coup d'état, was suspended in 2000–2001 after a military coup. Fiji was suspended once again following the military coup of December 2006.[17]

Nigeria was suspended between 1995 and 1999.

Zimbabwe was suspended in 2002 over concerns with the electoral and land reform policies of Robert Mugabe's Zanu-PF government, before withdrawing from the organisation in 2003. The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland came close to being admitted as a full commonwealth member, but prospects for this were suspended, indefinitely, following Southern Rhodesia's unilateral declaration of independence in 1965.

Pakistan was first suspended between 1999 and 2004. On 12 November 2007, in response to the 2007 Pakistani state of emergency, the Commonwealth gave Pakistan a 10-day deadline to restore its constitution and lift other emergency measures or face another suspension from the 53-nation grouping.[18] On 22 November 2007, after the 10-day deadline had expired, Pakistan was suspended from the Commonwealth for violating its key principles, on the grounds of President Musharraf's refusal to give up his role as head of the army, restore an independent judiciary and lift the state of emergency in the country.[19] However, Pakistan termed the suspension 'unreasonable and unjustified'.

[edit] Withdrawal

As membership is purely voluntary, member governments can choose at any time to leave the Commonwealth. Pakistan left in 1972 in protest at the Commonwealth's recognition of breakaway Bangladesh, but rejoined in 1989. Zimbabwe left in 2003 when Commonwealth Heads of Government refused to lift the country's suspension on the grounds of human rights violations and deliberate misgovernment.

[edit] Other termination

Although Heads of Government have the power to suspend member states from active participation, the Commonwealth has no provision for the expulsion of members. However, Commonwealth realms that become republics automatically cease to be members, unless (like India in 1950) they obtain the permission of other members to remain in the organisation as a republic. The Republic of Ireland left the Commonwealth when it became a republic, on 18 April 1949, after passing the Republic of Ireland Act 1948; because it preceded India's London Declaration, remaining in the Commonwealth was not an option.[citation needed] 

South Africa was prevented from continuing as a member after it became a republic in 1961, due to hostility from many members, particularly those in Africa and Asia as well as Canada, to its policy of apartheid. The South African government withdrew its application to remain in the organisation as a republic when it became clear at the 1961 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference that any such application would be rejected. South Africa was re-admitted to the Commonwealth in 1994, following the end of apartheid earlier that same year.

The Maldives left the Commonwealth in 1965 after declaring their independence from the United Kingdom; they were re-admitted to the Commonwealth on 9 July 1982.

The declaration of a republic in the Fiji Islands in 1987, after military coups designed to deny Indo-Fijians political power in Fiji, was not accompanied by application to remain. Commonwealth membership was held to have lapsed until 1997, after racist provisions in the republican constitution were repealed and reapplication for membership made.

Hong Kong was not a member but participated in certain elements as a British colony; these ceased after the 1997 handover of British rule to China.

[edit] Objectives and activities

The Commonwealth has long been distinctive as an international forum where highly developed economies (such as the UK, Australia, Canada, Singapore and New Zealand) and many of the world's poorer countries seek to reach agreement by consensus. This aim has sometimes been difficult to achieve, as when disagreements over Southern Rhodesia in the late 1960s and 1970s and over apartheid in South Africa in the 1980s led to a cooling of relations between Britain and African members.

An important statement of the Commonwealth's principles is the 1991 Harare Declaration, which dedicated the organisation to democracy and good government, and allowed for action to be taken against members who breached these principles. Before then the Commonwealth's collective actions had been limited by the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of other members.

The Commonwealth lists its areas of work as:

  • Democracy
  • Economics
  • Education
  • Gender
  • Governance
  • Human Rights
  • Law
  • Small States
  • Sport
  • Sustainability
  • Youth

Through a separate voluntary fund Commonwealth governments support the Commonwealth Youth Programme, a division of the Secretariat with offices in Gulu (Uganda), Lusaka (Zambia), Chandigarh (India), Georgetown (Guyana) and Honiara (Solomon Islands).

The organisation is celebrated each year on Commonwealth Day, the second Monday in March.

[edit] Benefits of membership

In its early days, the Commonwealth constituted a significant economic bloc. Commonwealth countries accorded each others' goods privileged access to their markets ("Commonwealth preference"), and there was a free or preferred right of migration from one Commonwealth country to another. These rights have been steadily eroded, but their consequences remain. Within most Commonwealth countries, there are substantial communities with family ties to other members of the Commonwealth, going beyond the effects of the original colonisation of parts of the Commonwealth by settlers from Britain or Ireland. Furthermore, consumers in Commonwealth countries retain many preferences for goods from other members of the Commonwealth, so that even in the absence of tariff privileges, there continues to be more trade within the Commonwealth than might be predicted. On Britain's entry to the European Community, the Lomé Convention preserved some of the preferential access rights of Commonwealth goods to Britain's market.

Some Commonwealth countries give Commonwealth citizens privileges that are not accorded to aliens. For example, in Britain the right to vote is given to all Commonwealth citizens resident in that country, one example being Bryan Gould, a New Zealander who was elected as a Labour MP. However, these privileges are largely not reciprocal, and it is up to each country to decide what privileges it accords to Commonwealth citizenship, except for the Commonwealth Scholarship. Other privileges that Britain grants Commonwealth citizens include access to immigration programmes such as the working holidaymaker visa. Some privileges offered by individual countries have eroded over the last few decades, but most countries continue to afford special treatment for immigration (e.g. right of abode in UK for some) and visas. Commonwealth citizens are also eligible to join the British armed forces. Also, Commonwealth citizens stranded in a foreign country can receive assistance from a British embassy if their own embassy is not present in that country.[citation needed]

[edit] Criticisms

In recent decades there has been a mutual decline of interest in maintaining active intra-Commonwealth relations, and the organisation's direct political and economic importance has declined. Realist critics have argued that in the 21st century the organisation is an inherently arbitrary alliance with members that are united only through a historical accident of British colonialism. They argue that the organisation lacks a balanced membership, and point out that it is very unusual for any international organisation to exclude highly important regions of the world such as most of Western Europe and South America from membership. Indeed, many Commonwealth members look increasingly to regional partners, non-Commonwealth as well as Commonwealth, to form their most important alliances. Such criticisms aside, and however arbitrary the origins of Commonwealth membership, the fact remains that shared legal, economic, and governmental traditions give its members a common outlook that is not always shared with regional partners.

Britain has forged closer relationships with other European countries through the European Union; this was widely felt as a betrayal by citizens of the "Old Commonwealth" whose economies had been developed on the assumption of access to British markets. Similarly, former British colonies have forged closer relationships with non-Commonwealth trading partners and closer geographic neighbours. Reaction to immigration from the new Commonwealth countries into Britain in the 1950s and early 1960s led to the restriction of the right of migration. The Commonwealth today mainly restricts itself to encouraging community between nations and to placing moral pressure on members who violate international laws, such as human rights laws, and abandon democratically-elected government. Key activities today include training experts in developing countries and assisting with and monitoring elections.

[edit] Structure

[edit] Head of the Commonwealth

Queen Elizabeth II
Queen Elizabeth II

Queen Elizabeth II is the Head of the Commonwealth, a title which is de facto annexed to the sovereign of the United Kingdom[20]. Some members of the Commonwealth, known as Commonwealth realms, also recognise the Queen as their head of state. However, the majority of members are republics, and a handful of others are indigenous monarchies.

[edit] Commonwealth Secretariat

The Commonwealth Secretariat (see External links below), established in 1965, is the main intergovernmental agency of the Commonwealth, facilitating consultation and cooperation among member governments and countries. It is responsible to member governments collectively.

Based in London, the Secretariat organises Commonwealth summits, meetings of ministers, consultative meetings and technical discussions; it assists policy development and provides policy advice, and facilitates multilateral communication among the member governments. It also provides technical assistance to help governments in the social and economic development of their countries and in support of the Commonwealth’s fundamental political values.

The Secretariat is headed by the Commonwealth Secretary-General who is elected by Commonwealth Heads of Government for no more than two four-year terms. The Secretary-General and two Deputy Secretaries-General direct the divisions of the Secretariat. The present Secretary-General is Donald McKinnon, from New Zealand, who took office on 1 April 2000, succeeding Chief Emeka Anyaoku of Nigeria (1990–2000). The first Secretary-General was Arnold Smith of Canada (1965–75), followed by Sir Shridath Ramphal of Guyana (1975–90). The new Secretary-General will be Kamalesh Sharma, from India, who was appointed on 24 November 2007 and will take office on 1 April 2008

[edit] Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting

The main decision-making forum of the organisation is the biennial Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), where Commonwealth presidents or prime ministers assemble for several days to discuss matters of mutual interest. CHOGM is the successor to the Prime Ministers' Conferences and earlier Imperial Conferences and Colonial Conferences dating back to 1887. There are also regular meetings of finance ministers, law ministers, health ministers, etc.

[edit] Commonwealth Family

Main article: Commonwealth Family

Commonwealth countries share many links outside government, with over a hundred Commonwealth-wide non-governmental organisations, notably for sport, culture, education and charity. The Association of Commonwealth Universities is an important vehicle for academic links, particularly through scholarships, principally the Commonwealth Scholarship, for students to study in universities in other Commonwealth countries. There are also many non-official associations that bring together individuals who work within the spheres of law and government, such as the Commonwealth Lawyers Association and the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association.

[edit] Commonwealth Foundation

The Commonwealth Foundation is an intergovernmental organisation, resourced by and reporting to Commonwealth governments, and guided by Commonwealth values and priorities. Its mandate is to strengthen civil society in the achievement of Commonwealth priorities: democracy and good governance, respect for human rights and gender equality, poverty eradication and sustainable, people-centred development, and to promote arts and culture.

The Commonwealth Foundation was established by the Heads of Government in 1965. Membership of the Foundation is open to all members of the Commonwealth and (as of June 2007) stands at 46 governments out of the 53 member countries. Associate Membership, which is open to associated states or overseas territories of member governments, has been granted to Gibraltar. 2005 saw celebrations for the Foundation's 40th Anniversary. The Foundation is headquartered in Marlborough House, Pall Mall, London, and has no other offices. Regular liaison and cooperation between the Secretariat and the Foundation is in place.

The Foundation continues to serve the broad purposes for which it was established as written in the Memorandum of Understanding:[21]

The purposes and areas of interest of the Foundation will be the administration of funds for increasing interchanges between Commonwealth organisations of the skilled or learned professions or skilled auxiliary occupations in order to maintain and improve standards of knowledge, attainment and conduct; and between non-governmental organisations of a voluntary rather than a strictly professional character throughout the Commonwealth. The Foundation's areas of interest will also extend to include culture, information and the media, rural development, social welfare and the handicapped, and the role of women.

[edit] Commonwealth Games

Main article: Commonwealth Games

A multi-sports championship called the Commonwealth Games is held every four years, in the same year as the Winter Olympic Games. As well as the usual athletic disciplines, the games include sports popular in the Commonwealth such as bowls.

[edit] Commonwealth of Learning

The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) is an intergovernmental organisation created by the Heads of Government to encourage the development and sharing of open learning/distance education knowledge, resources and technologies. COL is helping developing nations improve access to quality education and training.

[edit] Commonwealth Business Council

The Commonwealth Business Council (CBC) was formed at the Edinburgh CHOGM in 1997. The aim was to utilise the global network of the Commonwealth more effectively for the promotion of global trade and investment for shared prosperity.

The CBC acts as a bridge for co-operation between business and government, concentrating efforts on these specific areas:

The CBC has a dedicated team, CBC Technologies, based in London and focused on the international technology and global services industry throughout the Commonwealth.

In October 2007, the United Kingdom Independence Party is calling for the UK to end its political union with the EU and set up a Free Trade Area with Commonwealth countries.[22]

[edit] Commonwealth War Graves Commission

[edit] Cultural links

The Commonwealth is also useful as an international organisation that represents significant cultural and historical links between wealthy first-world countries and poorer nations with diverse social and religious backgrounds. The common inheritance of the English language and literature, the common law, and British systems of administration all underpin the club-like atmosphere of the Commonwealth.

Mostly due to their history of British rule, many Commonwealth nations share certain identifiable traditions and customs that are elements of a shared Commonwealth culture. Examples include common sports such as cricket and rugby, driving on the left, parliamentary and legal traditions, and the use of British rather than American spelling conventions (see English in the Commonwealth of Nations). None of these are universal within the Commonwealth countries, nor exclusive to them, but all of them are more common in the Commonwealth than elsewhere.

In recent years the Commonwealth model has inspired similar initiatives on the part of France, Spain and Portugal and their respective ex-colonies, and in the former case, other sympathetic governments: the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (International Organisation of Francophone Countries), the Comunidad Iberoamericana de Naciones (Organization of Ibero-American States) and the Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa (Community of Portuguese Language Countries). The Arab League, an association similar to the Commonwealth, was founded in 1945 and whose members and observers (except India) use Arabic as an official language.

[edit] Literature

The shared history of British rule has also produced a substantial body of writing in many languages: Commonwealth literature. There is an Association for Commonwealth Literature and Language Studies (ACLALS) with nine chapters worldwide. ACLALS holds an international conference every three years.

In 1987, the Commonwealth Foundation established the Commonwealth Writers Prize "to encourage and reward the upsurge of new Commonwealth fiction and ensure that works of merit reach a wider audience outside their country of origin." Caryl Phillips won the Commonwealth Writers Prize 2004 for A Distant Shore. Mark Haddon won the Commonwealth Writers' Prize 2004 Best First Book prize worth £3,000 for The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time.

Although not affiliated with the Commonwealth in an official manner, the prestigious Man Booker Prize is awarded annually to an author from a Commonwealth country or the Republic of Ireland. This honour is one of the highest in literature.

[edit] See also

[edit] Other organisations

[edit] Lists of Commonwealth members

[edit] Footnotes

  1. ^ FAQs. Commonwealth Secretariat. Retrieved on 2007-07-25.
  2. ^ a b Singapore Declaration of Commonwealth Principles 1971. Commonwealth Secretariat (22 January 1971). Retrieved on 2007-07-25.
  3. ^ History of the Commonwealth.
  4. ^ Commonwealth history timelines.
  5. ^ de Smith, S.A. (July 1949). "The London Declaration of the Commonwealth Prime Ministers, April 28, 1949". The Modern Law Review 12 (3): pp. 351-4. Retrieved on 2007-07-22.
  6. ^ Williams, Paul D. (July 2005). "Blair's Britain and the Commonwealth". The Round Table 94 (380): pp. 381–391.
  7. ^ Harare Commonwealth Declaration. Commonwealth Secretariat (20 October 1991). Retrieved on 2007-07-29.
  8. ^ Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group. Commonwealth Secretariat. Retrieved on 2007-07-29.
  9. ^ a b te Velde-Ashworth, Victoria (10 October 2005). The future of the modern Commonwealth: Widening vs. deepening? (PDF). Commonwealth Policy Studies Unit. Retrieved on 2007-07-29.
  10. ^ Commonwealth membership in focus at London meeting. Commonwealth Secretariat (6 December 2006). Retrieved on 2007-07-29.
  11. ^ Rwanda’s bid to join Club to be considered at 2009 meet. The EastAfrican (20 November 2007). Retrieved on 2007-11-20.
  12. ^ Special Member status
  13. ^ http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,,1990795,00.html
  14. ^ http://www.nationmedia.com/eastafrican/current/News/news1911200714.htm
  15. ^ Eligible Areas
  16. ^ Baldacchino, Godfrey; Milne, David (September 2006). "Exploring sub-national island jurisdictions: An editorial introduction". The Round Table 95 (386): pp. 487–502.
  17. ^ BBC News: Fiji suspended from Commonwealth (8th Dec 2006)
  18. ^ http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2007/11/12/pakistan-elections.html?ref=rss
  19. ^ "Pakistan barred from Commonwealth", BBC News website, BBC, 22 November 2007. Retrieved on 2007-11-23. 
  20. ^ The position of Head of the Commonwealth was discussed at the 1997 Edinburgh Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting. The consensus was that the title should remain annexed to the Sovereign.
  21. ^ Commonwealth Foundation - About Us, ¶4–5
  22. ^ http://www.ukip.org/ukip/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=229&Itemid=66

[edit] References

  • The Constitutional Structure of the Commonwealth, by K C Wheare. Clarendon Press, 1960. ISBN 0-313-23624-0
  • A Guide to the Contemporary Commonwealth, by W D McIntyre. Palgrave, 2001. ISBN 0-333-96310-3

[edit] Further reading

  • What does Commonwealth membership mean?, by Commonwealth Secretary-General, Don McKinnon - Barbados Advocate Newspaper, March 12th, 2007.
  • The Commonwealth in the World, by J D B , by N Mansergh. University of Toronto Press, 1982. ISBN 0-8020-2492-0
  • Making the New Commonwealth, by R J Moore. Clarendon Press, 1988. ISBN 0-19-820112-5
  • Les ONG du Commonwealth contemporain: rôles, bilans et perspectives, by C A Auplat. L'Harmattan, Paris, 2003. ISBN 2-7475-5513-5
  • Commonwealth: inter- and non-state contributions to global governanace, by Timothy M Shaw. Routledge, 2008. ISBN 978-0-415-35120-1 (hbk); 978-0-415-35121-8 (pbk)

[edit] External links


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