Roman Catholic Church

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Roman Catholic Church
The front of St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City
Classification	Roman Catholic
Polity	Episcopal
Founder	Traditionally, Jesus[1][2]
Origin	Traditionally the year 30 Jerusalem
Separations	Eastern Orthodox Church, Protestant denominations[2]
Geographical Area	Worldwide
Statistics
Members	1,114,966,000[3]

The Catholic Church or Roman Catholic Church is a Christian church led by the Bishop of Rome, currently Pope Benedict XVI. Through apostolic succession, it traces its origins to the original Christian community founded by Jesus in his act of consecration of Saint Peter, who is considered by the church to have been the first pope.^[1][2] Together with its main mission to preach the Gospel and administer the sacraments, the Church administers numerous social programs and ministries in countries throughout the world. These include schools, universities, hospitals, and shelters, as well as ministries like Catholic Relief Services and Catholic Charities that help the poor, families, elderly, sick and marginalized.^[4]

Church belief is encapsulated in the Nicene Creed and detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.^[5] Formal Catholic worship is ordered by means of the liturgy, which is regulated by church authority. The celebration of the Eucharist, one of seven church sacraments, is considered the center of Catholic worship.^[6] However there are numerous additional forms of personal prayer and devotion including the Rosary, Stations of the Cross, and Eucharistic adoration.^[6] The church community consists of the ordained priesthood or deaconate, those like monks and nuns living a consecrated life under rule, and the laity.

The Catholic Church is the largest Christian church, made up of one Western or Latin and 22 Eastern Catholic autonomous particular churches that comprise 2,782 jurisdictional areas around the world.^[7] Representing over half of all Christians^[8][9] and one sixth of the world's population,^[10] these churches look to the Pope, alone or together with the College of Bishops, as their highest authority on earth for matters of faith, morals and church governance.^[11][12] Church history is intricately intertwined with the history of Western civilization. Because of the church's global nature, it also forms part of world history. The church has affected and shaped the lives and beliefs of Christians and non-Christians alike for almost two thousand years.^[13]

Contents 1 Origin and Mission 2 Beliefs 2.1 Creed 2.2 Spiritual realm and sin 2.3 Jesus and Holy Spirit 2.4 Church and Papal Authority 2.4.1 Apostolic Succession 2.5 Final judgment and salvation 2.6 Devotion to the Virgin Mary and the saints 3 Practices: Prayer and worship 3.1 Mass, sacraments, liturgical year 3.2 Liturgy of the Hours 3.3 Devotional life/Personal Prayer 4 Community 4.1 Ordained ministry: Bishops, priests, and deacons 4.2 Religious orders 4.3 Laity 5 Church History 5.1 Roman Empire (30–476) 5.2 Early Middle Ages (477–910) 5.3 High Middle Ages (910-1453) 5.4 Renaissance 5.5 Age of Reason 5.6 The Modern Era 5.7 Vatican II and beyond 6 Demographics 6.1 Membership 7 See also 8 Footnotes 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links

Origin and Mission

Main articles: History of the Roman Catholic Church and History of the Papacy

The church traces its origins to Jesus and the Twelve Apostles, and sees the bishops of the church as the successors of the Apostles in general, and the Pope as the successor of Saint Peter, leader of the Apostles, in particular.^[14][12] The Gospel of Matthew, chapter 16, gives the account of Christ's consecration of Peter with the words "...you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church, and the gates of the netherworld shall not prevail against it. I will give you the keys to the kingdom of heaven. Whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven."^[15][6] The coming of the Holy Spirit upon the Apostles at Pentecost then brought this promised "Church" into the world.^[6] This is considered the church's traditional origin, but scholars such as Eamon Duffy caution that lack of clear written records during the early years of Christianity make such precision difficult to confirm. The earliest list of bishops comes from Irenaeus in the second century. In his book Saints and Sinners, A History of the Popes Duffy states "There is no sure way to settle on a date by which the office of ruling bishop had emerged in Rome, and so to name the first Pope, but the process was certainly complete by the time of Anicetus in the mid-150's, when Polycarp, the aged Bishop of Smyrna, visited Rome, and he and Anicetus debated amicably the question of the date of Easter."^[9]

The Church mission comes from Christ's command to his followers to go into the world to teach all nations.^[12] "Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you: and Lo, I am with you always, until the close of the age.^[6][16][17] After his death and resurrection, Jesus appears to Peter asking him to "feed my sheep" and "tend my sheep".^[18][6] The church believes it fulfills these mandates by preaching the Gospel and administering the sacraments.^[6] The Church supplements its preaching and sacramental duties by administering numerous social programs in countries throughout the world. Through ministries like Catholic Relief Services, Catholic Charities, catholic schools, universities, hospitals, shelters, ministries to the poor, families, elderly and marginalized, and various lay ministries, the Church tends to both corporal and spiritual needs of "the sheep."^[6]

Beliefs

Catholic beliefs have been clarified by several Councils of the Church convened by the leaders of the church at important points throughout history. The first such council was convened by the first Apostles in Jerusalem around the year 50. The most recent was Vatican II which closed in 1965. The Gospel of Matthew quotes Jesus making this promise to Saint Peter regarding the church, "the gates of hell will not prevail against it".^[15] In the Gospel of John, Jesus makes this promise, "I have much more to tell you, but you cannot bear it now. But when he comes, the Spirit of truth, he will guide you to all truth."^[19] In the light of these promises, the Catholic Church believes that it is led by the Holy Spirit and divinely prevented from teaching error in doctrinal matters.^[6] Catholic belief on all subjects is summarized in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, a book published by the Vatican.^[20][5]

Eastern Orthodox belief differs from that of Roman Catholic mainly on the issues of papal infallibility, the filioque clause and the immaculate conception of Mary but is otherwise quite similar.^[21] The Protestant churches vary in their beliefs, but they generally differ from Catholics on the authority of the Pope and of church tradition, the role of Mary and the saints, the role of the priesthood, and issues pertaining to grace, good works and salvation.^[22] The five solas were one attempt to express these differences.^[22]

Creed

The Nicene Creed, an expansion of the Apostles' Creed, states the main principles of basic Christian and Catholic belief.^[23] This creed is recited at Catholic Masses on Sunday as well as in the majority of all Christian churches regardless of denomination.^[23][24] It states:

"We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is, seen and unseen. We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only Son of God eternally begotten of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, one in Being with the Father. Through him all things were made. For us men and for our salvation he came down from heaven: by the power of the Holy Spirit he was born of the Virgin Mary, and became man. For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate; he suffered, died, and was buried. On the third day he rose again in fulfillment of the Scriptures; he ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end. We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son. With the Father and the Son he is worshiped and glorified. He has spoken through the Prophets. We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church. We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come."^[6]

Spiritual realm and sin

Main article: Original sin

Catholic belief includes the existence of spiritual beings called angels. They are God's servants and messengers who posess intelligence, will, and immortality.^[25] In an event called the "Fall of the Angels," some angels chose to reject God and his reign.^[6][26] The church refers to "Satan" or the "devil" as the fallen angel that tempted the first humans to commit original sin.^[26]

Originally created to live in union with God, these first humans, Adam and Eve brought sin and death into the world by committing this original sin. The event, called The Fall of Man, left humans separated from their original state of intimacy with God. This state of separation can follow the soul into death.^[6][27] The Catechism states that "The account of the fall in Genesis 3 uses figurative language, but affirms... a deed that took place at the beginning of the history of man".^[26] According to the Catechism, original sin is to each individual soul "a deprivation of original holiness and justice..." that makes each person "subject to ignorance, suffering, and the dominion of death: and inclined to sin..."^[26] People can be cleansed from this original sin through the sacrament of Baptism.^[6]

Jesus preaches that his way leads to the fullness of life and love and following him leads the person to this fullness.^[28][6] Sin is the opposite of following Jesus, it robs man of his resemblance to God and turns the soul away from God's love.^[29] Failing to love God and our neighbor, doing harm to them, and not following the Ten Commandments are some ways that people can commit sin. Some sins are more serious than others. Mortal sins are acts or deeds that break our relationship with God.^[6] For a sin to be mortal, three conditions must be met: "Mortal sin is sin whose object is grave matter and which is also committed with full knowledge and deliberate consent".^[29][6] Catholics can be cleansed from sins other than original sin through the sacrament of Penance.

Jesus and Holy Spirit

The Gospel of John refers to Jesus as "The Word" who is God, and who was with God from the beginning, and through whom all things were made.^[30][31] In the messianic texts of the Jewish Tanakh, which is also the Christian Old Testament, God promises to send his people a savior who will give his life as an offering for sin.^[6] According to Catholics, this promise is fulfilled in Jesus, the "lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world."^[32][33] Christians believe that the mission of Jesus included giving us his word and example to follow.^[34][33] A person is helped to avoid sin and to do good by following the words and example of Jesus Christ which are found in the four Gospels.^[6] Furthermore, through his suffering, all people have an opportunity for forgiveness of and freedom from sin.^[6] This forgiveness is believed to reconcile us to God. The sacrament of Penance is the principal means by which Catholics obtain this forgiveness and receive God's grace and help not to sin again. Penance is a sacrament used to help prepare Catholics before they can validly receive the Holy Spirit in the sacraments of Confirmation and the Eucharist.^[35][36][6]

Jesus told his apostles that he would send them the "Advocate," the "Holy Spirit" who "will teach you everything and remind you of all that I told you."^[37][6] According to the Catechism, this Holy Spirit "restores to the baptized the divine likeness lost through sin."^[38] To the Catholic, receiving the Holy Spirit is receiving God, the source of all that is good.^[6] United with God, the person allows God to live and work through that person, producing the fruits of the Spirit which are love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self control.^[38] The sacraments of Confirmation and Eucharist are the means with which Catholics obtain the Holy Spirit. The sacrament of confirmation can only be conferred once in a person's lifetime.^[6] The church encourages the faithful to receive the Eucharist as often as a person who is in a state of grace desires. It is a precept of church that the faithful Catholic must receive the Eucharist at least once a year.^[39][40]

Church and Papal Authority

Jesus said to his disciples "Abide in me, and I in you... I am the vine, you are the branches."^[41] Thus, for Catholics, the church means the people of God who abide in Jesus and form the different parts of his Body.^[42][6] It does not mean just a physical structure where people gather to worship God although the word "church" is what Christian places of worship are called. Catholic belief extends the meaning of church to include all the faithful who have ever lived, who are believed to be still alive in heaven and who regularly intercede for people on earth. This is called "communion with the saints" and "communion with the dead."^[43][6] Although the Catholic Church establishes, believes and teaches that it is the one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church,^[44] it also believes that the Holy Spirit can work through and make use of other churches to bring people to salvation.^[6] In its Constitution, the church acknowledges that the Holy Spirit is active in the Christian churches and communities separated from itself and is called by the Holy Spirit to work for unity amongst all Christians.^[45]

Apostolic Succession

Apostolic Succession is the belief that the Pope and Catholic bishops are the spiritual successors of the original twelve apostles, through the historically unbroken chain of consecration (see: Holy Orders). The Pope is the spiritual head and leader of the Roman Catholic Church who makes use of the Roman Curia to assist him in governing. He is elected by the College of Cardinals who may choose from any male member of the church but who must be ordained a bishop before taking office. Since the 15th century, a current cardinal has always been elected.^[46] Historically, the New Testament contains warnings against teachings considered to be only masquerading as Christianity,^[47] and shows how reference was made to the leaders of the church to decide what was true doctrine.^[48][12] The Catholic Church believes it is the continuation of those who remained faithful to the apostolic leadership and rejected false teachings.^[49][22] Papal infallibility is the belief that when a pope speaks as head of the Church defining a doctrine concerning faith and morals to be held by the whole Church he does so without error because of the promises made by Jesus in his act of consecration of Peter as the foundation of his church.^[50]

Final judgment and salvation

Jesus' saying regarding the sheep and the goats, in the Gospel of Matthew 25:31-46, illustrates Catholic belief in a final judgment day. This Gospel discourse speaks of a day when Jesus sits in judgment of all mankind.^[6] "Come, you who are blessed by my Father... for I was hungry and you gave me food, I was thirsty and you gave me drink, a stranger and you welcomed me, naked and you clothed me, ill and you cared for me, in prison and you visited me... Amen I say to you, whatever you did for one of these least brothers of mine, you did for me."^[51] For this reason, Catholic social teaching commits Catholics to the welfare of every person. Catholic life requires both spiritual and corporal works of mercy. The corporal works are drawn from the preceding passage from Matthew 25. Spiritual works require the Catholic to: share their knowledge with others, give advice to those who need it, comfort those who suffer, be patient with others, forgive those who hurt them, give correction to those who need it, and pray for the living and the dead.^[6]

There are three states of afterlife in Catholic belief. Heaven is a state of everlasting union and happiness with God. Purgatory is a temporary place for purification of souls who are not free enough from sin to enter directly into heaven. The Church asks for and encourages prayers for these souls especially at Mass. Those who freely chose a life of sin and selfishness, were not sorry for their sins and had no intention of changing their ways go to Hell. Hell is everlasting separation from God. According to Church belief, no one is condemned to hell without freely deciding to reject God and his love. Death, judgment, heaven and hell are called the "four last things."^[6][52]

Devotion to the Virgin Mary and the saints

Main article: Marian doctrines of the Catholic Church

Catholic belief holds that the church exists both on earth and in heaven simultaneously and thus, the Virgin Mary and the saints are alive and part of the living church. Prayers and devotions to Mary and the saints are common practices in Catholic life. These devotions are not worship, since only God is worshiped. The church teaches that the saints "do not cease to intercede with the Father for us... So by their fraternal concern is our weakness greatly helped."^[53]

Catholics venerate Mary with many loving titles such as "Blessed Virgin," "Mother of God," "Help of Christians," "Mother of the Faithful." She is given special honor and devotion above all other saints but this honor and devotion differs essentially from the adoration given to God.^[54] Catholics do not worship Mary but honor her as mother of Christ, mother of the church and as a spiritual mother to each believer of Christ.^[54][6] She is called the greatest of the saints, the first disciple, and Queen of Heaven.^[6] Catholic belief encourages following her example of holiness.^[6] Prayers and devotions asking for her intercession, such as the rosary, the Hail Mary and the Memorare are common Catholic practice.^[6] The Church devotes several liturgical feasts to Mary. Although there are others, the major feasts of Mary celebrated on the liturgical calendar are: The Immaculate Conception, Mary, Mother of God, The Visitation, The Assumption, The Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary; and in the America's the Feast of Our Lady of Guadalupe. Pilgrimages to Marian shrines like Lourdes, France and Fatima, Portugal are also a common form of devotion and prayer asking for her intercession.

Practices: Prayer and worship

In the Catholic Church, a distinction is made between formal, public liturgy and other prayers or devotions. The liturgy is regulated by church authority and consists of the Eucharist (the Mass), the other Sacraments, and the Liturgy of the Hours. All Catholics are expected to participate in the liturgical life of the church by assisting at Mass on Sundays, but personal or communal prayer and devotions, while encouraged, are a matter of personal preference. A set of precepts provided by the church are to be followed by every Catholic. These precepts set a minimum standard for personal prayer and moral effort. They are:

• You shall attend Mass on Sundays and holy days of obligation.
• You shall confess your sins at least once a year.
• You shall humbly receive your Creator in Holy Communion at least once during Easter season.
• You shall keep holy the holy days of obligation.
• You shall observe the prescribed days of fasting and abstinence.

The faithful also have a duty of providing for the material needs of the church according to their individual abilities.^[55]

Mass, sacraments, liturgical year

Main articles: Eucharist (Catholic Church), Catholic liturgy, and Sacraments of the Catholic Church

Sunday is a holy day of obligation for Catholics that requires them to attend Mass. At Mass, Catholics believe that they respond to Jesus' command to "do this in remembrance of me."^[56][57] In 1570 at the Council of Trent, Pope Pius V codified a standard book for the celebration of Mass for the Roman Rite.^[58][59] Everything in this decree pertained to the priest celebrant and his action at the altar.^[58] The participation of the people was devotional rather than liturgical.^[58] The Mass text was in Latin as this was the universal language of the church.^[59] This was called the Tridentine Mass and endured universally up to Vatican II and the vernacular Mass known as the Novus Ordo Missae.^[58]

Catholic mass is separated into two parts. The first part is called Liturgy of the Word; readings from the Old and New Testament are read prior to the Gospel reading and priest's homily. The second part is called Liturgy of the Eucharist where the actual sacrament of the Eucharist is celebrated.^[6] Catholics regard the Eucharist as the source and summit of the Christian life, and believe that the bread and wine brought to the altar are changed through the power of the Holy Spirit into the true Body and the true Blood of Christ.^[6] This is called transubstantiation. The Holy Mass is a re-presentation of Christ's sacrifice on Calvary.

There are seven sacraments of the church, of which the most important is the Eucharist.^[6] According to the Catechism, these sacraments were instituted by Christ and entrusted to the church.^[60] They are vehicles through which God's grace flows into the person who receives them with the proper disposition.^[6] In order to obtain the proper disposition, individuals are encouraged to attend classes before being permitted by pastors to receive certain sacraments.^[61] Participation in the sacraments, offered to them through the church, is how Catholics obtain forgiveness of sins and formally ask for the Holy Spirit.^[6] These sacraments are: Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, Holy Matrimony

Beginning with Advent, the time of preparation for both the celebration of Jesus' birth and his second coming at the end of time, the liturgical year follows events in the life of Jesus. Christmas follows Advent beginning on December 25, Christmas Eve, and ends on the feast of the baptism of Jesus on January 13. Lent is the 40 day period of purification and penance that begins on Ash Wednesday and ends on Holy Thursday. The Holy Thursday evening Mass of the Lord's Supper, marks the beginning of the Easter Triduum which then ends on Good Friday. These days recall Jesus' last supper with his disciples, his passion, death on the cross, his burial, and his resurrection on Easter Sunday. The season of Easter follows the Triduum and climaxes on Pentecost, recalling the descent of the Holy Spirit upon Jesus' disciples in the upper room. The rest of the liturgical year is called Ordinary Time.^[6]

Liturgy of the Hours

Main article: Liturgy of the Hours

The Liturgy of the Hours, also known as the Divine Office, is a prayer through which Catholics consecrate the day to God. It makes regular use of the Psalms intermixed with New and Old Testament readings and intercessions. It is an adaptation of the ancient Jewish practice of praying the Psalms at certain hours of the day or night.^[62] Catholics who pray the Liturgy of the Hours use a set of books issued by the Church called a breviary. The Catechism encourages "pastors of souls" to pray the Liturgy of the Hours.^[63] By canon law, priests and deacons are required to pray the Liturgy of the Hours each day.^[64] Frequently, religious communities make praying the Liturgy of the Hours together a part of their rule of life. The Second Vatican Council encouraged the Christian laity to take up the practice. Although individuals may pray this on their own, they are considered to be praying in unison, in spirit, with the entire worldwide church.^[63]

Devotional life/Personal Prayer

Main article: Catholic spirituality

Aside from the Mass, the Catholic Church considers personal and communal prayer to be one of the most important elements of Christian life. In the Gospel, Jesus instructs his disciples to "pray always." The Church considers personal prayer a Christian duty, one of the spiritual works of mercy and a principal way we nourish a relationship with God.^[6] There are three ways of praying identified in the Catechism: vocal prayer, meditation, and contemplative prayer. Vocal prayer is not valuable unless the heart is present.^[65] Quoting from St. John Chrysostom, the Catechism states, "Whether or not our prayer is heard depends not on the number of words, but on the fervor of our souls.^[65] Meditation is prayer where the "mind seeks to understand the why and how of Christian life, in order to adhere and respond to what the Lord is asking.^[65] Contemplative prayer is being with God, taking time to be close to and alone with him.^[65] Two of the core prayers of the Catholic Church are the Rosary and Stations of the Cross.^[6] These prayers are sometimes vocal, but always meditative and contemplative at once. Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament is a common form of contemplative prayer. Benediction is vocal. Lectio Divina which means "sacred reading" is a form of meditative prayer. The Church encourages but does not require certain rhythms of praying intended to nourish continual prayer. This rhythm includes such daily prayers as grace at meals and the Liturgy of the Hours, as well as the weekly rhythm of Sunday Eucharist, and the observation of the year-long liturgical cycle.^[65]

Community

The basic administrative unit of the Roman Catholic Church is the diocese, which is led by a bishop appointed by the pope. There are more than 2500 Catholic dioceses in the world. The bishops are responsible for teaching, governing and sanctifying the faithful in their diocese, and are helped by priests and deacons. Laity is a term that refers to everyone in the community who is not a bishop, priest, or deacon. Some members of the ordained and some laity take vows of poverty, chastity and obedience and are called "consecrated." Consecrated Life (also called the Religious Life) refers to the life of men and women dedicated to God in a binding manner that is recognized by the Church.^[66] Its members are not part of the hierarchy, unless they are also ordained priests.^[67]

Ordained ministry: Bishops, priests, and deacons

Main articles: Catholic Church hierarchy, College of Bishops, Priesthood (Catholic Church), and Deacon

Men become bishops, priests or deacons through the sacrament of holy orders. Candidates to the priesthood must have college degree in addition to another four to five years of seminary formation. This formation includes not only academic classes but also human, spiritual and pastoral education. The Catholic Church only ordains men, as the Twelve Apostles were all male.^[68] The Church teaches that women have a different yet equally important role in church ministry, prayer and life.^[69]

The Bishops possess the fullness of Christian priesthood; priests and deacons participate in the ministry of the bishop. As a body (the College of Bishops) are considered to be the successors of the Apostles.^[70][71] The pope, cardinals, patriarchs, primates, archbishops and metropolitans are all bishops and members of the Catholic Church episcopate or College of Bishops. Only bishops are allowed to perform the sacraments of holy orders and confirmation.^[6]

Each bishop heads a diocese, which is divided into parishes. A parish is usually staffed by at least one priest. Beyond their pastoral activity, a priest may perform other functions, including study, research, teaching or office work. They may also be rectors or chaplains. Other titles or functions held by priests include those of Archimandrite, Canon Secular or Regular, Chancellor, Chorbishop, Confessor, Dean of a Cathedral Chapter, Hieromonk, Prebendary, Precentor, etc. Permanent deacons preach and teach. They may also baptize, lead the faithful in prayer, witness marriages, and conduct wake and funeral services.^[72] Candidates for the diaconate go through a diaconate formation program and must meet minimum standards set by the bishops' conference in their home country. Upon completion of their formation program and acceptance by their local bishop, candidates receive the sacrament of Holy Orders.

While deacons may be married, only celibate men are ordained as priests in the Latin Rite.^[73][74] Protestant clergy who have converted to the Catholic Church are sometimes excepted from this rule. The Eastern Rites ordain both celibate and married men.^[75] All rites of the Catholic Church maintain the ancient tradition that, after ordination, marriage is not allowed. A married priest whose wife dies may not remarry.^[75] Men with "transitory" homosexual leanings may be ordained deacons following three years of prayer and chastity, but men with "deeply rooted homosexual tendencies" who are sexually active cannot be ordained.^[76]

Religious orders

Main articles: Consecrated life (Catholic Church) and Roman Catholic Religious Order

The Catholic Church recognizes several forms of the consecrated life. These include the cenobitic life in the religious institutes (often referred to as religious orders or religious congregations), the eremitic/anchoritic life, the order of virgins, the life of the consecrated widows/widowers, and in secular institutes and societies of apostolic life. It also makes a provision for the approval of "new forms of consecrated life."^[77]

The majority of those desiring to enter the consecrated life join a religious institute,^[78] in which they follow a common rule like the Rule of Saint Benedict or its equivalent, and agree to live under the leadership of a superior. They usually live in community, although occasionally an individual is given permission to live as a hermit while retaining membership in the religious institute. Others may be given permission to reside elsewhere, for example as resident chaplain to a community of nuns, or as a priest serving a non-local parish.^[79]

To enter consecrated life a member must consecrate himself to God. This can be done through a public profession confirmed by vow or other sacred bond. By making this vow, members assume observance of the three evangelical counsels of chastity, poverty and obedience and are consecrated to God through the ministry of the Church. They also become members of the particular institute to which they have been received into with rights and duties that are defined by the Church in canon law.^[80][6] Examples of some of these religious institutes are the Benedictines, Dominicans, Sisters of Charity, Marist Brothers, Franciscans, Passionists, Carmelites, and Cistercians but there are many others. Consecrated virgins, hermits, widows/widowers and societies of apostolic life are consecrated by their diocesan bishop according to the approved liturgical rite and observe a proper program of living under his direction.^[81]

Laity

Main article: Laity

Catholics who are neither ordained clergy nor consecrated religious are called laity. Within the Church community they are considered equals to the ordained and consecrated in dignity, in the call to holiness, and in the work to build the church. The lay person's role in the church body is to discover or invent the means for permeating social, political, and economic realities with the demands of Christian doctrine and life.^[82] The church recognizes that not only the ordained, but the lay faithful also participate in Christ's priestly, prophetic and royal offices.^[82] The laity participate in the priestly office of Christ by offering their prayer and good works as spiritual sacrifices. They labor in the prophetic office by being good Christian examples to the world both in word and deed. The kingly office requires the lay person to master himself and work to conform worldly institutions to the norms of justice.^[82] Some of the non-ordained exercise formal, public ministry in the name of the church.^[83] These are called lay ecclesial ministers, a broad category which may include pastoral life coordinators, pastoral associates, pastoral assistants, youth ministers, campus ministers, etc.

Lay ecclesial movements consist of lay Catholics organized for purposes of catechesis, cultural work, mutual support, and/or missionary apostolate. While consisting generally of laity, these groups may also have some ordained or religious members. Some examples of these groups are L'Arche Communities, Communion and Liberation, Neocatechumenal Way, Regnum Christi, Focolare, Charismatic Renewal, Traditionalists, Opus Dei, Life Teen, Lay Cistercians and many more. Pope John Paul II, in a Pentecost vigil sermon in May 1998, elaborated on the role of these groups in the church: "The Church expects from you the mature fruits of communion and commitment. The world is dominated by a secularized culture which encourages and promotes models of life without God. Thus we see an urgent need for powerful proclamation and solid, in-depth Christian formation."^[84] He also observed that these movements represented "wonderful Christian families... true domestic churches," and that "many vocations to the ministerial priesthood and the religious life have blossomed" as a result.^[84]

Church History

Main articles: History of the Catholic Church and Role of Catholic Church in Civilization

Further information: History of Christianity, History of Western civilization, and Criticism of the Catholic Church

The Roman Catholic Church has influenced and shaped the life, belief and culture of both Christians and non-Christians for almost two thousand years. Its history has been intricately entwined with the history of Western civilization.

Roman Empire (30–476)

Following the death of Jesus, Peter and the other apostles preached the Gospel both in Judea and in surrounding lands.^[1] The first church council, the Council of Jerusalem, was held in or around the year 50 in order to reconcile doctrinal differences that had arisen between Christian communities.^[22] At this time Church teachings and traditions were being defined and formed into a systematic whole by the Apostolic Fathers,^[9] among whom Saint Peter and Saint Paul were leading figures. Due to their efforts more than 40 Christian communities were in existence by the year 100.^[1] Over the next 100 years, Church teachings and traditions were further refined and defended in the writings of the Early Church Fathers. Prominent among these were Justin Martyr in 151AD, Saint Irenaeus in 180AD and Tertullian in 200AD.^[9]

Because they refused to offer sacrifice to Roman gods and defer to Roman rulers as gods, early Christians were frequently subject to persecution. Emperors Nero, Trajan, Domitian, Marcus Aurelius and Septimus Severus all initiated persecutions.^[85]By the mid-third century, persecution was extensive throughout the empire. The ferocity of the persecution varied, with Decius and Valerian prominent among persecuting emperors. However it is Diocletian who is remembered for his efforts from 300AD onward, to completely wipe out Christianity.^[1][85] Roman roads, mails and seaborne communications facilitated evangelization throughout the Roman empire in spite of the repeated persecutions. The spread of Christianity was further assisted by the translation of the Bible from Greek to Latin, the principal language of the Empire.^[1] Christianity was legalized in 313, when Emperor Constantine I, a Christian sympathiser, issued the Edict of Milan.^[85] Constantine was also instrumental in convening the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which addressed the heresy of Arianism and formulated the Nicene Creed.^[1] During Constantine's reign, the first Basilica of St. Peter was consecrated by Pope Sylvester I in 326. Christianity became the official religion of the empire in 380 under Emperor Theodosius I.^[86]

Over subsequent decades a series of Ecumenical Christological Councils formally codified critical elements of the theology of the Church. The Council of Rome in 382 set the Canon of the Bible, listing the accepted books of the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Council of Ephesus in 431 clarified the nature of Jesus's Incarnation, declaring that Jesus was both fully Man and fully God in a single personhood.^{[85] [33]} The Oriental Orthodox Churches eventually broke away from the Catholic Church because of disagreements over the precise nature of the incarnation of Jesus. (see Monophysite.)

Early Middle Ages (477–910)

Further information: Middle Ages and Christian monasticism

The Western half of the Roman Empire fell to invaders in 476.^[87] The Catholic Church responded by launching missionary activity among these barbarian tribes. Clovis, pagan king of the Franks was converted in 496. From 597 missionaries such as Augustine of Canterbury, Boniface, Willibrord and Anskar took Christianity into northern Europe. In this way Catholicism spread among the Germanic peoples, the Celts, and the Slavic peoples, reaching the Vikings and other Scandinavians in subsequent centuries.^[85]

In 530, Saint Benedict wrote his Rule as a practical guide for monastic community life. The rejuvenated monasteries were important contributors to the communities around them. These centers of intellectual activity, science, and education served as lodging for travellers, pilgrimage destinations, and libraries.^[88] With the breakdown of civil administration, the Catholic Church performed many social and governmental services, including making and enforcing laws, collecting taxes, and operating schools and farms. Church officials could hold considerable political power, often serving as advisors to kings. Feudal lords who rebelled risked excommunication a severe penalty that facilitated peace.^[87] The Church's influence continued to expand, and it became one of the most powerful institutions of the Middle Ages.^[88][87]

The Church continued to evolve throughout the Middle Ages. Pope Gregory the Great (590-604) dramatically reformed ecclesiastical structure and administration, launching a renewed missionary effort. However between 650 and 732 Islamic armies overran the Christian lands of Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa and Spain, only being halted at Poitiers in France. ^[85] In the 8th century, Byzantine emperors sponsored iconoclasm, possibly as a reaction to the advance of Muslim armies into their territories. The popes challenged Byzantine power and preserved the use of images in regions outside imperial control. The dispute was resolved in 787 when the Second Council of Nicaea ruled in favour of icons.^[9] In 858 disagreements between the Eastern and Western churches arose again when Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople was deposed in favour of the more extreme Photios. The Pope backed Ignatius, and the subsequent bitter dispute further inflamed differences between Catholic and Orthodox churches.^[85]

High Middle Ages (910-1453)

Further information: High Middle Ages

In 910, the Benedictine monastery of Cluny led a movement to free abbeys from secular control. Until this time monasteries were generally established or sponsored by feudal lords who maintained a right to interfere in monastic affairs. The Cluniac reforms placed the abbot under the direct control of the pope. Cluny and daughter houses then had the ability to enforce a monastic rule without interference. Rejuvenated by these reforms, the number of monasteries increased, and monastic influence upon society expanded. Monasteries, convents, and cathedrals operated most schools and libraries.^[88] After 1100, some older cathedral schools split into lower "grammar schools" and higher schools for advanced learning. First in Bologna, then at Paris and Oxford, many of these higher schools developed into universities.^[85] Originally teaching only theology, they steadily added subjects including medicine, philosophy and law and became the direct ancestors of modern Western institutions of learning.^[89]

The 11th century also saw the formalization of the Great Schism, which left Christianity permanently divided. A dispute over whether Constantinople or Rome held juristiction over the church in Sicily led to mutual excommunications in 1054.^[85][90] The Western (Latin) branch of the church has since become known as the Roman Catholic Church, while the Eastern (Greek) branch has become known as the Orthodox Church. These churches disagree on a number of administrative, liturgical, and doctrinal issues, most notably the Filioque clause and papal primacy of jurisdiction.^[22] The Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439) each failed to heal the schism. Some Eastern churches have subsequently reunited with the Roman Catholic Church, and others claim never to have been out of communion with the Pope.^[22] Officially, the two churches remain in schism, although excommunications were mutually lifted in 1965.^[9]

Pope Urban II launched the First Crusade in 1095 after receiving an appeal from Byzantine emperor Alexius I to help ward off a Turkish invasion.^[91] The Crusades, a series of military campaigns, lasted from 1096 to 1270 and were intended to return the Holy Land to Christian control. This goal was not permanently realized and episodes of brutality caused a legacy of mutual distrust between Muslims, Jews, Western and Eastern Christians.^[22] Although Church leaders who initiated the Crusades did not condone the massacres, Pope John Paul II apologized to the Orthodox Christians in 2001 for the sins of Catholics including the sacking of Constantinople in 1204.^[22]

Church building and ecclesiastical architecture reached new heights during this period, culminating in the orders of Romanesque and Gothic architecture and the building of the great European cathedrals.^[22] Until the 20th century, a cathedral was generally the landmark building of its city, rising high above all the domestic structures.^[92][93] Eight new monastic orders were founded in the 12th century, these included the ultra-rigorous Carthusians and another new and influential ascetic order, the Cistercians, who established their houses in wild and remote locations. These orders helped bring much needed spiritual cleansing to the Church.^[22] Cistercian Bernard of Clairvaux criticised lavish church spending while "children are naked".^[9] His influence led Pope Alexander III to begin a transformation in the church that would lead to the establishment of canon law.^[9] Consecrated religious life was brought out of the monastery and into urban settings in the 13th century with the founding of mendicant orders or friars. The two principal mendicant movements were the Franciscans and the Dominicans.^[85]

In the 12th century Catharism arose as the greatest threat to the western church. Cathars were dualists, advocated extreme asceticism, taught that all matter was evil, and denied the value of Church sacraments.^[9][85] Saint Dominic attempted to convert them by preaching, but when this failed, and a papal legate was murdered in southern France in 1209, Pope Innocent III declared a crusade, encouraging secular rulers to stamp out this heresy. Following a costly civil war, the first Inquisition was founded in the 1230s to root out remaining Cathars.^[85] Further separate inquisitions were established at later dates. Historians distinguish between the Medieval Inquisition, the Spanish Inquisition, the Roman Inquisition, and the Portuguese Inquisition, some under state and others under church control.^[22] The Inquisitions were intended to identify and prosecute heretics, and some were initiated in response to threat of Moorish invasion.^[94][22] The accused were encouraged to recant their heresy and those who did not could be punished by fine, imprisonment, or execution by burning,^[94] although fewer than 4% of the accused were sentenced to death during the Spanish Inquisiton.^[95] In 1252, the Church, following the model of some secular tribunals, authorized torture as a method of questioning and issued guidelines on when it was allowed to be applied.^[94][96] Some of the Inquisitions also prosecuted bigamy, usury, apostasy, witchcraft, and blasphemy, and some accusations were made for political rather than religious purposes.^[94][96] The inquisitions rarely took part in witchcraft trials, and areas in which the inquisition was strong had less witchcraft hysteria.^[97]

The 14th century was marked by many church-state conflicts.^[22] Efforts to come to terms with powerful secular rulers, particularly in France and the Holy Roman Empire led to the election in 1305 of Pope Clement V, a close ally of the king of France. Clement chose not to settle in Rome, and under the influence King Philip the Fair, became the first of seven French popes to reside in Avignon, France. This was termed by many the "Babylonian Captivity of the church."^[85] Through the influence of Catherine of Siena and Bridget of Sweden, the papacy eventually returned to Rome in 1378. However, with the death of Pope Gregory XI later that year, the papal election was disputed between supporters of Italian and French-backed candidates,^[85] leading to the Great Western Schism. For 38 years, separate claimants to the papal throne sat in both Rome and Avignon. Efforts at resolution in 1409 further complicated the matter with the election of a third, compromise, pope.^[22] The matter was finally resolved in 1417 at the Council of Constance where the cardinals called upon all three claimants to the papal throne to resign, and held a new election naming Martin V pope.^[85]

Renaissance

Main articles: Reformation and Counter-Reformation

Further information: Roman Catholic Church and colonialism

Through the late 15th and early 16th centuries European missionaries and explorers spread Catholicism to the Americas, Asia, Africa and Oceania. Pope Alexander VI awarded colonial rights over most of the newly-discovered lands to Spain and Portugal. Three decades later, in 1521, the first Catholics were baptised in what would become the first Christian nation in Southeast Asia, the Philippines.^[98] In India, Portugese missionaries and the Spanish Jesuit, Francis Xavier were evangelizing the Christian community that had already been established there by the Apostle Thomas.^[22] Major contributions to civilization made by Catholics in this era include the institution of modern approaches to social work, hospital care, and education through the influence of many men and women subsequently recognized by the Church as saints.^[22]

In December 1511, Antonio de Montesinos, a Dominican friar, openly rebuked the Spanish authorities governing Hispaniola for their mistreatment of the American natives, telling them "...you are in mortal sin...for the cruelty and tyranny you use in dealing with these innocent people."^[99] This rebuke eventually reached King Ferdinand who enacted the Laws of Burgos and Valladolid in response. This legislation on behalf of the natives met with disappointing enforcement, however the issue roused a crisis of conscience in sixteeth century Spain. An outpouring of self-criticism and philosophical reflection among Catholic theologians, most notably Fr. Francisco de Vitoria, led to debate on the nature of human rights, and the birth of modern international law.^[100]

In Europe, the Renaissance was a period of renewed interest in ancient and classical learning, and a re-examination of accepted beliefs. On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses, which protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of indulgences.^[87] Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, and others further criticised Catholic teaching and worship. These challenges developed into a movement called the Protestant Reformation. Among the doctrines the Reformation called into question were primacy of the pope, clerical celibacy, the seven sacraments, and the Eucharist.^[87]

The Reformation reached England in 1534, when the Act of Supremacy named King Henry VIII the Supreme Head of the Church of England, following the king's unfulfilled desire for a divorce. Beginning in 1536, monasteries throughout England, Wales, and Ireland were dissolved and Catholic churches were confiscated.^[88] Henry VIII executed those like Thomas More, who disagreed openly with his Act of Supremacy. During the reign of Mary I of England, Protestants were persecuted, and subsequent English monarchs persecuted Catholics.^[22] At the beginning of Elizabeth I's reign Catholic practices were outlawed, but the laws were often loosely enforced.^[101] Following her excommunication by Pius V, the protestant government suppressed several Catholic rebellions and faced threats of invasion from Catholic Spain.^[101] Elizabeth I then issued the Acts of Persuasion, which made conversion to Catholicism treason punishable by death.^[102] Similar laws were enacted in Ireland.^[103]

In Germany, the reformation led to religious war between the Protestant Schmalkaldic League and the Roman Catholic Emperor Charles V. After nine years, the war ended with the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, but more serious conflict broke out in the following century. (see Thirty Years War.)^[22] In France a series of eight civil wars were fought between 1560 and 1621 between militant followers of Calvinism and the forces of the French Catholic League. During this period several attempts at religious toleration were attempted by French rulers such as Catherine de Medici, but these failed to stop the conflict. King Henry IV, hoping to end the religious wars, issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598 granting civil and religious toleration to Protestants. .^[104]

The Catholic Church launched its primary response to the Protestant Reformation at the Council of Trent (1545-1563,) which is seen as the beginning of the Counter-Reformation. At Trent, Church leaders clarified Catholic doctrine in sharp contrast to protestantism; defending clerical celibacy, belief in the real presence of Jesus in communion, the freedom of human will as opposed to Luther's doctrine of the bondage of the will, and opposing the protestant teaching of "faith alone" for salvation, insisting that faith must be accompanied by love and hope. ^[85] The Council also addressed abuses such as clerical corruption, absentee clergy and poorly-trained priests. A renewed enthusiasm led to the founding of new religious orders, such as the Theatines and the Jesuits. New seminaries were established for the proper training of priests, there was an increase in worldwide missionary activity, and the development of new yet orthodox forms of spirituality, such as that of the Spanish mystics and the French school of spirituality.^[22] The Baroque style in art and architecture was encouraged by the church as a vehicle to popularise counter-reformation teachings.

Age of Reason

Although mission work proceded throughout the world, a major setback occurred in Japan, to which Christianity had been introduced in the sixteenth century by Francis Xavier. Japanese Catholics numbered in the tens of thousands by the end of the century. However from 1597 Japanese authorities launched a severe persecution of Christians that lasted thirty years. Foreign missionaries were banished and Christians who remained suffered death by crucifixion.^[22][85] Pope Innocent XII launched further reform in 1691 when he outlawed nepotism and simony.^[105] Despite the changes, the Church experienced further missionary setbacks when the Chinese Rites controversy led the Kangxi Emperor to ban Christian missions in that country.^[106] In Europe the religious conflicts of the Reformation era provoked a backlash against Christianity. Not only did enlightenment thinking bring Christianity increasingly under attack, but outside of Italy secular powers gained control of virtually all major church appointments and much of the church's property. Catholic rulers like Louis XIV simply ignored the pope when he objected to royal policies such as the persecution of Huguenots.^[85] Efforts by the pope to unite Catholic nations against the danger of the Turks resulted in further alienation between pro-Turkish France and Rome.^[9] In 1773 European rulers united to force Pope Clement XIV to dissolve the Jesuit order.^[85] Matters grew still worse with the violent anti-clericalism of the French Revolution. The church was outlawed, all monasteries destroyed, 30,000 priests were exiled and hundreds more were killed.^[85] When Pope Pius VI took sides against the revolution in the First Coalition, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Italy. The Pope was imprisoned by French troops the following year and died after six weeks of captivity.^[9] The Catholic Church was not re-established in France until 1802.^[107] The end of the Napoleonic wars brought Catholic revival and renewed enthusiasm following the depradations of the previous era. Many new religious and missionary orders including the Marists, the Grey Nuns, the Passionists, and the Holy Ghost Fathers worked across the world.^[85]

In the Americas, the Church expanded its missions in cooperation with the Spanish government and military. Junipero Serra, the Franciscan priest in charge of this effort, founded a series of missions which quickly became important economic, political, and religious institutions. These missions brought grain, cattle, and a new way of living to the pagan Indian tribes of California. Overland routes were established from New Mexico that resulted in the colonization of San Francisco in 1776 and Los Angeles in 1781. However, by bringing civilization to the area, these missions have been held responsible for wiping out nearly a third of the native population, primarily through disease. Harsh work regimes and overpopulation within the missions also contributed to the problem.^[108] In 1789, with the help of a letter of recommendation from Benjamin Franklin, John Carroll became the first United States bishop. One of his most significant contributions was the founding of George Washington University in Washington DC. This same period saw the Church struggling against the colonial abuses of the Portugese and Spanish governments. In South America Jesuits established semi-independent colonies or reductions to protect native peoples from enslavement. Pope Gregory XVI, challenging Spanish and Portugese sovereignty, appointed his own candidates as bishops in the colonies, condemned slavery and the slave trade (in 1839), and approved the ordination of native clergy in the face of government racism.^[9]

The Modern Era

Serious problems emerged for the church in 1860 when an anti-clerical regime assumed power in Mexico. The regime confiscated Church properties and denied basic civil and political rights to religious orders and clergy. Between 1926 and 1934 the number of priests in Mexico fell by over 3000 due to assassination, emigration or expulsion.^[109][110] Despite the persecution, the Church continued to grow in Mexico, and a 2000 census reported that 88% of Mexicans identified themselves as Catholic.^[111] Anti-clerical regimes have come to power in many catholic nations. Argentina experienced extravagent press denunciations of the clergy, destruction of churches, and confiscation of catholic schools under the regime of General Juan Peron in 1954 as he tried to extend state control over national institutions.^[112] In 1980, Oscar Romero, Archbishop of El Salvador, was murdered while celebrating mass by supporters of that country's military regime because of his vocal objections to the regime's human rights abuses and violence against the poor. Persection of the Church, confiscation of church property and retrictions on individual religious freedoms have continued sporadically in various Latin American nations in spite of the region's overwhelming Catholic population. ^[112] The Church has been commended for its efforts to fight injustice in Central America and other Latin American countries.^[113]

In 1869-70, the First Vatican Council affirmed the doctrine of papal infallibility.^[114] This doctrine states that when a pope "speaks... as the pastor and teacher of all Christians,..." defining ..."a doctrine concerning faith and morals to be held by the whole Church," he "is possessed of that infallibility with which the Divine Redeemer wished for his Church to be endowed...." This does not mean that the pope is always infallible or even that all his teachings are infallible, only certain specifically defined pronouncements.^[9] Since 1870 when this doctrine was affirmed, there have only been three church teachings declared infallible, the Assumption, the Immaculate Conception and Ordinatio Sacerdotalis. Controversy over this and other issues led to the formation of a small breakaway church called the Old Catholic Church.^[115]

The Industrial Revolution led to increasing concern about the deteriorating conditions of urban workers. Inspired by the German Catholic industrialist Lucien Harmel, Pope Leo XIII published the encyclical Rerum Novarum explaining Catholic Social Teaching in terms that rejected socialism while defining the duty of the rich to help the poor beyond mere charity. The encyclical advocated the regulation of working conditions, the establishment of a living wage, and the right of workers to form Trade Unions.^[9]

World War II presented new challenges for the Catholic Church. Even though no church teachings promote the killing of Jews, some people blamed the Church for fomenting the anti-semitism that fueled the growth of the Nazi regime in Germany. Additionally, Pope Pius XII was accused of not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities. Although the historical record reveals his words and efforts were clearly against the Nazis, his actions continue to be a source of debate.^[116][117] Several decades later, in 1998, Pope John Paul II apologized for past actions by Christians that caused suffering to the Jewish people, calling them our "elder brothers" in the faith.^[118]

Vatican II and beyond

Main article: Second Vatican Council

In the aftermath of World War II new Communist governments came to power in Eastern Europe under the influence of the Soviet Union. Rights to freedom of worship were restricted and churches of all denominations were confiscated and used for non-religious purposes. Religious affiliation was strongly discouraged.^[90] The resistance of the Church and in particular the leadership of Pope John Paul II were credited with helping to bring about the downfall of communist governments across Europe in 1991.^[119]

The Catholic Church engaged in a comprehensive process of reform during and immediately after the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965). Convened by Pope John XXIII, the Council stressed what it saw as positive in other Christian communities and other religions. Tasked with making the historical teachings of the Catholic Church clear to the modern world, the council issued documents on numerous topics, including the nature of the church, the mission of the laity, and religious freedom. It also issued directions for a revision of the liturgy, including permission for the Latin liturgical rites to use vernacular languages as well as Latin in the Mass and the other sacraments.^[120][12] The Church also embarked on new efforts to improve Christian unity.^[9] In addition to finding common ground on certain issues with Protestant churches, the Catholic Church has discussed the possibility of unity with the Eastern Orthodox Church, the second largest Christian denomination worldwide.^[121] but this goal has not yet been acheived.^[122]

In Latin America, the 1960s saw the emergence of Liberation Theology. Growing out of sympathy for working-class movements in Latin American cities, this new movement sought revolutionary change to improve the lot of the poor. Using a radical interpretation of the Gospel, Liberation Theology aimed to redefine the mission of the Church toward achieving political change. A chief promoter of this effort was the Peruvian priest Gustavo Gutierrez. Liberation Theology was subsequently denounced by both Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI. Calling the movement "dangerous", the Church sees it as a return to the pre-modern notion of establishing a Christian society through coercive political management.^[112] The movement is still alive in Latin America today although somewhat diminished in popularity.^[123]

The sexual revolution of the 60's brought challenging new issues for the church to address in the form of abortion, euthanasia, and birth control. Pope Paul VI issued the encyclical Humanae Vitae in 1968 to respond to questions on these issues.^[124][12] Humanae Vitae affirmed the sanctity of life from conception to natural death and rejected the use of birth control. Catholics were instead encouraged to use Natural Family Planning if they wished to limit the size of their families or space the birth of their children. Abortion and euthanasia are considered murder and a mortal sin.^[125] The Catholic Church has been both praised and criticized for its stauch pro-life position. The Church's rejection of the use of condoms has provoked criticism, especially with respect to countries where AIDS and HIV infections are at epidemic proportions. The Church maintains that countries, like Kenya, where behavioral changes are endorsed instead of condom use, have experienced greater progress towards controlling the disease than countries just promoting condoms.^[126] Some have accused the Roman Catholic Church of unjust discrimination on the issue of women's ordination. In response, Pope John Paul II issued two encyclicals to explain church teaching. Mulieris Dignitatem in 1988, was issued to clarify women's equally important and complimentary role in the work of the church.^[127] Then in 1994, Ordinatio Sacerdotalis explained that the Church only extends ordination to men in order to follow the example of Christ who chose only men for this specific duty.^{[128][129][69]}

In 2001, lawsuits emerged, particularly in the United States, claiming that some priests had sexually abused minors. Some priests resigned, others were defrocked, and financial settlements were given to many victims. The Church was widely criticized when it was discovered that some bishops knew about allegations of misconduct and then reassigned accused priests instead of removing them from ministry. Some bishops contended that the prevailing psychology of the times suggested that people could be cured of such behaviour with counseling.^[130] Many of the abusive priests had received counseling before being reassigned. Pope John Paul II responded by stating there is no place in the priesthood for those who would abuse children. The church instituted reforms to prevent future abuse including requiring fingerprinting and background checks for church employees and, because almost all victims were teenage boys, disallowing ordination of men with deep seated homosexual tendencies. These reforms also set up a clear code of conduct for all dioceses to follow when faced with an allegation including alerting the authorities, conducting an investigation and removing the accused priest or employee from duty.^{[76][131][132]} The number of accused priests was 0.02% of the total number of priests.^[133][134]

Demographics

Further information: Global organisation of the Roman Catholic Church and Roman Catholicism by country

The Catholic Church is the largest Christian church, representing over half of all Christians, and is the largest organized body of any world religion.^[9] The number of Catholics in the world is around 1.1 billion^[3] and continues to increase, particularly in Africa and Asia.^[10] As of 2005, Brazil is the country with the largest number of Catholics.^[135] The worldwide Catholic Church is made up of one Western or Latin and 22 Eastern Catholic autonomous particular churches. It is divided into jurisdictional areas each called a diocese in the Latin church or an eparchy in the Eastern churches. Each diocese or eparchy is headed by a bishop, patriarch or eparch who is appointed with final approval by the pope. At the end of 2006, the total number of all these jurisdictional areas (or "Sees") was 2,782.^[7]

Membership

According to canon law, one becomes a member of the Catholic Church by being baptized in the church or by being received into the church (by making a profession of faith, if already baptized).^[136] Rite of Christian Initiation for Adults or RCIA is a process of formation for adults being received into the church.^[6] After going through this formation program, they receive all three sacraments of initiation (Baptism, Eucharist and Confirmation) at the Easter Vigil on Holy Saturday.^[6]

A person can excommunicate themselves or be excommunicated from membership in the church by committing certain particularly grave sins.^[137][138] Excommunication is the most severe ecclesiastical penalty. It prevents a person from validly receiving any church sacrament and can not be forgiven except by the Pope, the bishop of the place or priests authorized by them. An example of an offense which incurs excommunication is if a priest violates the seal of confession, that is if he tells someone of anothers sins heard in the sacrament of penance. Other examples are heresy, and for having an abortion or supporting any part of the abortion process including support for laws that make abortion legal or more accessible.^[139] Some examples of people who have been excommunicated or incurred excommunication are Frederick I, Henry VIII, Elizabeth I, Womenpriests.

See also

For a list of articles related to this topic, see Category:Roman Catholic Church

• Anti-Catholicism
• Catholic
• Catholicism
• Christianity
• Criticism of the Catholic Church
• List of canonizations
• Lists of Roman Catholics
• Roman Catholic calendar of saints

Footnotes

References

• Herbermann, Charles G. et al. (April 1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Press.
• Barry, Rev. Msgr. John F. (2001). One Faith, One Lord: A Study of Basic Catholic Belief. Gerard F. Baumbach, Ed.D.. ISBN 0-8215-2207-8. 

Further reading

• Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church. Libreria Editrice Vaticana (2005).
• Annuarium Statisticum Ecclesiae (Annual Church Statistics). EWTN (July 2004). Retrieved on 2006-09-14.
• Carroll, Warren (October 2004). History of Christendom. Christendom Press. ISBN 0-931888-21-2.  4 Volumes.
• Crocker, III, H. W. (November 2001). Triumph: The Power and the Glory of the Catholic Church: A 2,000-Year History. Prima Lifestyles. ISBN 0-7615-2924-1. 
• Hughes, Philip (1947). A History of the Church: The World in Which the Church Was Founded. Sheed & Ward. ISBN 0-7220-7981-8. 
• Miller, Adam S. (1997, 2006). The Roman Catholic Church: A Divine Institution or a Human Invention?. Tower of David Publications. 
• Woods, Jr., Thomas (May 2005). How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization. Regnery Publishing. ISBN 0-89526-038-7. 

External links

• Vatican: the Holy See the official website of the Vatican
• Catholic Hierarchy Information on Catholic bishops and dioceses
• The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church Information on the Cardinals of the Catholic Church
• Global Catholic Statistics: 1905 and TodayPDF (26.3 KiB) by Albert J. Fritsch, SJ, PhD
• MassTimes - A comprehensive database of every Catholic Church and Mass in the entire world.
• Catholic Wiki - A wiki site dedicated to the Catholic Church.

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