1920 Palestine riots
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The 1920 Palestine riots, or Nabi Musa riots, were violent Arab disturbances against the Jews of Jerusalem. They took place under British rule on 4 and 7 April 1920 in and around the Old City of Jerusalem.
Named after the Muslim Nabi Musa holiday, whose celebration coincided with the events, the riots followed rising tensions in Arab-Jewish relations over the implications of Zionist immigration, tensions which had, in outlying areas, spilled over into attacks on Jewish settlements in the Galilee. Speeches by Arab Palestinian religious leaders during the festival, in which traditionally large numbers of Muslims gathered to make a religious procession, led to a serious outbreak of violent assaults on the city's Jews. The British military administration's erratic response failed to contain the rioting, which continued for four days. As a result of the events, trust between the British, Jews, and Arabs eroded. One consequence was that Jewish community increased moves towards an autonomous infrastructure and security apparatus parallel to that of the British administration.
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[edit] Prelude
After Emir Faisal I expressed support for a Jewish National Home in Palestine by signing the Faisal-Weizmann Agreement at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, and the subsequent breakdown of that agreement, relations between Arabs and Jews in Palestine had worsened. The Arab attacks of March 1920 in Galilee, especially the death of Joseph Trumpeldor at Tel Hai caused deep concerns among Zionist leaders, who made numerous requests to the Mandate administration to address the Yishuv's security. Their fears were largely discounted, however, by the Chief Administrative Officer General Louis Bols, Governor Sir Ronald Storrs and General Edmund Allenby, despite a warning from the President of the World Zionist Organization Dr. Chaim Weizmann that "pogrom is in the air", confirmed by assessments available to Storrs.[1]
Storrs issued a warning to Arab leaders, but his forces included only 188 policemen, among them but 8 officers. The Ottoman Turks had usually deployed thousands of soldiers, and even an artillery piece, to keep order in the narrow streets of Jerusalem during the Nebi Musa procession. This failure led Zionist leaders to request that the British authorities allow arming of the Jewish defenders. Although this request was declined, Ze'ev Jabotinsky, together with Pinhas Rutenberg, led an effort to openly train Jewish volunteers in self-defense, an effort which the Zionist Commission kept the British informed of. Many of them members of the Maccabi sports club and some of them veterans of the Jewish Legion, their month of training largely consisted of callisthenics and hand to hand combat with sticks.[1] By the end of March, about 600 were said to be performing military drill daily in Jerusalem.[2] Jabotinsky and Rutenberg also began organising the collection of arms.[2]
Richard Meinertzhagen, chief political officer of the British forces, claimed to the Foreign Secretary, Lord Curzon, that a number of anti-Semitic and anti-Zionist officers in the military administration had initiated the riots to prove the Jewish national home policy had no chance of success. In particular, Meinertzhagen asserted that Allenby's chief of staff, Colonel Bertie Harry Waters-Taylor had given explicit instructions to Mohammad Amin al-Husayni on how to demonstrate to the world that Palestinian Arabs would not tolerate Jewish rule. Allenby subsequently protested to Curzon and Meinertzhagen was ordered out of Palestine.[1]
The Zionist Commission supported Meinertzhagen's claims, noting that Arab milkmen demanded their customers in Meah Shearim pay them on the spot, explaining that they would no longer be serving the Jewish neighbourhood. Christian storekeepers had marked their shops in advance with the sign of the cross so that they would not be mistakenly looted. A previous commission report also accused Storrs of inciting the Arabs, blaming him for sabotaging attempts to purchase the Western Wall as well. A petition circulated among American citizens and presented to their consul protested that the British had prevented Jews from defending themselves.[1]
[edit] April 4-7, 1920 in the Old City
The annual Nebi Musa spring festival was instituted by Salah ad-Din to ensure a Muslim presence in Jerusalem during the influx of Christian pilgrims celebrating the Easter holiday. Arab educator and essayist Khalil al-Sakakini described how tribes and caravans would come with banners and weapons[1].
By 10:30 am on April 4, 1920, 60,000-70,000 Arabs had already congregated in the city square, and Arab gangs had already been attacking Jews in the Old City's alleys for over an hour; the Jews hid. Inflammatory anti-Zionist rhetoric was being delivered from the balcony of the Arab Club. One inciter was Hajj Amin al-Husayni; his uncle, the mayor, spoke from the municipal building's balcony. The editor of the newspaper Suriya al-Janubia (Southern Syria), Aref al-Aref, delivered his speech on horseback. The crowd shouted "Independence! Independence!" and "Palestine is our land, the Jews are our dogs!"[1] The Arab police joined in applause and violence started.[3] The Arab mob ransacked the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem, beating anyone they could find and looting shops and homes. Arabs were ripping open the quilts and pillows of their victims, sending up the clouds of feathers associated by Jews with the European pogroms. The Toras Chaim yeshiva was raided and Torah scrolls were torn and thrown on the floor, and the building then set alight.[1] During the first next three hours, 160 Jews were wounded.[3]
Khalil al-Sakakini witnessed the eruption of violence in the Old City:
- "[A] riot broke out, the people began to run about and stones were thrown at the Jews. The shops were closed and there were screams... I saw a Zionist soldier covered in dust and blood... Afterwards, I saw one Hebronite approach a Jewish shoeshine boy, who hid behind a sack in one of the wall's comers next to Jaffa Gate, and take his box and beat him over the head. He screamed and began to run, his head bleeding and the Hebronite left him and returned to the procession... The riot reached its zenith. All shouted, "Muhammad's religion was born with the sword"... I immediately walked to the municipal garden... my soul is nauseated and depressed by the madness of humankind."[4]
The British response was erratic. After the violence broke out, Ze'ev Jabotinsky met Governor Storrs, who associated with him socially, and suggested deployment of his volunteers, but his request was rejected. Storrs confiscated his pistol and demanded to know where the rest of his guns were hidden, mentioning that Jabotinsky should be arrested for possessing a firearm. Later, Storrs changed his mind and asked for 200 volunteers to report to the police headquarters to be sworn in as deputies. After they arrived and the administering of the oath had begun, orders came to cease and send them away. Arab volunteers had also been invited, and were likewise sent away. The army imposed night curfew on Sunday night and arrested several dozen rioters, but on Monday morning they were allowed to attend morning prayers and were then released. Arabs continued to attack Jews and break into their homes, especially in Arab-majority mixed buildings.[1]
On Monday, disturbances grew worse and the Old City was sealed off by the army. Even Jews who sought to flee were not allowed to leave. Martial law was declared, but looting, burglary, rape, and murder continued. Several homes were set on fire, and tombstones were shattered. British soldiers found that the majority of illicit weapons were concealed on the bodies of Arab women[1].
On Monday evening, the soldiers were evacuated from the Old City, a step that was later declared "an error of judgement" by a court inquiry. The Old City's Jews had no training or weapons, and Jabotinsky's men had been concentrated outside the walled-city[1].
Two of his volunteers entered the Old City disguised as medical personnel to organize self-defense of its residents; they prepared rocks and boiling water, and got some Jews out. One of the volunteers was Nehemia Rabin (Rubitzov), future father of Yitzhak Rabin.[1]
Several British soldiers were sent to search Jews for arms at the demand of the Palestinian Arab leadership; the British searched the offices and apartments of the Zionist leadership, including Weizmann's and Jabotinsky's homes. At Jabotinsky's house, they found 3 rifles, 2 pistols, and 250 rounds of ammunition. Nineteen men were arrested, but not Jabotinsky, who went to the jail of his own volition to insist on his arrest. A military judge released him because he had not been home when the guns were discovered, but he was again arrested a few hours later. Storrs personally ensured that Jabotinsky received clothing from home, a mattress, and food from an adjacent hotel. It took the British authorities four days to put down the riots.[1]
[edit] Aftermath
Five Jews and four Arabs were killed, while wounded were 216 Jews, 18 critically; 23 Arabs, one critically; and seven British soldiers, all apparently beaten by an Arab mob. The majority of the victims were members of the old Yishuv, non-Zionist or anti-Zionist Orthodox Jews. About 300 Jews from the Old City were evacuated.[1]
After the riots, Storrs visited Menachem Ussishkin, the chairman of the Zionist Commission, to express "regrets for the tragedy that has befallen us",
- -Ussishkin asked, "What tragedy?"
- -"I mean the unfortunate events that have occurred here in the recent days", Storrs said.
- -"His excellency means the pogrom", suggested Ussishkin.
- When Storrs hesitated to categorize the events as such, Ussishkin replied,
- -"You Colonel, are an expert on matters of management and I am an expert on the rules of pogroms."[1]
Jabotinsky was convicted of possessing the pistol that he had handed over to Storrs on the riots first day, among other things. The primary witness was none other than Ronald Storrs, who said he "did not remember" being told about the self-defence organisation. He was sentenced to 15 years' imprisonment and sent to Egypt, though the next day he was returned to Acre. His trial and sentencing created an uproar, and were protested by London press including The Times and questioned in Parliament. Even before the editorials appeared, the commander of British forces in Palestine and Egypt, General Congreve, wrote Field Marshall Wilson that Jews were sentenced far more severely than Arabs who had committed worse offences. He reduced Jabotinsky's sentence to a year, and that of the nineteen to six months. Over 200 were put on trial, including 39 Jews.[1]
The Palin Commission (or Palin Court of Inquiry), a committee of inquiry sent to the region in May 1920 by the British authorities, examined the reasons for this trouble. According to A Survey of Palestine, Volume 1 (Prepared 1945-46, reprinted in 1991)[citation needed]:
Savage attacks were made by Arab rioters in Jerusalem on Jewish lives and property. Five Jews were killed and 211 injured. Order was restored by the intervention of British troops; four Arabs were killed and 21 injured. It was reported by a military commission of inquiry that the reasons for this trouble were:--
- (a) Arab disappointment at the non-fulfilment of the promises of independence which they claimed had been given to them during the war.
- (b) Arab belief that the Balfour Declaration implied a denial of the right of self-determination and their fear that the establishment of a National Home would mean a great increase in Jewish immigration and would lead to their economic and political subjection to the Jews.
- (c) The aggravation of these sentiments on the one hand by propaganda from outside Palestine associated with the proclamation of the Emir Feisal as King of a re-united Syria and with the growth of Pan-Arab and Pan-Moslem ideas, and on the other hand by the activities of the Zionist Commission supported by the resources and influence of Jews throughout the world.
The court placed the blame for the riots on the Zionists, 'whose impatience to achieve their ultimate goal and indiscretion are largely responsible for this unhappy state of feeling’[5] and singled out Amin al-Husayni and Ze'ev Jabotinsky in particular. The latter however was not, as the Court believed, an exponent of 'Bolshevism', which it thought 'flowed in Zionism's inner heart', but rather fiercely anti-Socialist. They had confused his politics with that of the Socialist-aligned Poalei Zion ('Zionist Workers') party, which it called 'a definite Bolshevist institution.' The document was never published. It was not even signed until July 1920, after the San Remo conference and replacement of the military administration with a civilian government under Sir Herbert Samuel.[1]
Some rioters were punished. Musa Kazim al-Husayni was replaced as mayor by the head of the rival Nashashibi clan. Hajj Amin al-Husayni and Aref al-Aref were each sentenced to ten years in absentia, since by then both had fled to Syria.
One of the most important results of the riot was that legal Jewish immigration to Palestine was halted by the British, a major demand of the Palestinian Arab community. Also, feeling that the British were unwilling to defend them from continuous Arab violence, Palestinian Jews decided to set up an underground self-defense militia, the Haganah ("defense"). Furthermore, the riots prompted the Arab leadership in Palestine to view themselves less as southern Syrian Arabs and more as a unique Palestinian Arab community.[1]
[edit] Notes
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Segev (2001), pp. 127–144.
- ^ a b Wasserstein (1991), p. 63; extract from a private letter from a reliable source dated 30 March, 1920, citing CZA L3/27.
- ^ a b Sachar (2006), p. 123.
- ^ Khalil al-Sakakini, Such am I, Oh World!, quoted by Benny Morris, Righteous Victims
- ^ Sahar Huneidi,A Broken Trust: Herbert Samuel, Zionism and the Palestinians 1920-1925, I.B.Taurus, 2001 p.35
[edit] References
- Idinopulos, Thomas A., Weathered by Miracles: A history of Palestine from Bonaparte and Muhammad Ali to Ben-Gurion and the Mufti, ISBN 1-56663-189-0.
- Sachar, Howard M. (2006), A History of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism to Our Time (2nd ed.), New York: Alfred A. Knopf, ISBN 0679765638.
- Segev, Tom (2001), One Palestine, Complete: Jews and Arabs Under the British Mandate, Owl Books, ISBN 0805065873.
- Wasserstein, Bernard (1991), The British in Palestine: The Mandatory Government and the Arab-Jewish Conflict 1917-1929, Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-17574-1.
[edit] See also
- Zionism
- Anti-Zionism
- Timeline of Zionism
- Timeline of Jewish History
- History of anti-Semitism
- Riots in Palestine of May, 1921
- British Mandate of Palestine
[edit] External links
- Lenni Brenner: The Iron Wall
