Overseas expansion of the United States

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History of U.S. expansion and influence

Foreign relations

List of military actions

List of bases

Non-interventionism

Overseas expansion

Overseas interventions

Pax Americana

Territorial acquisitions

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United States overseas expansion follows the expansion of U.S. frontiers on the North American continent (see Mexican-American War, War of 1812, and Territorial acquisitions of the United States), in particular during the "Age of Imperialism", the later part of the nineteenth century and ending with WWI, when all the major powers rapidly expanded their overseas territories. The overseas expansion of the United States into Puerto Rico and the Pacific occurred as a consequence of the Guano Islands Act, Spanish American War, the acquisition of American Samoa via the Treaty of Berlin, and the annexation of the Republic of Hawaii at the request of the then president of Hawaii, Sanford Dole. The U.S. Virgin Islands were purchased from Denmark in 1917. Only the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (including the Northern Mariana Islands) was gained after WWII.

[edit] U.S. expansion during the Age of Imperialism

Main article: Territorial acquisitions of the United States

[edit] Background

Post Spanish-American War U.S. political cartoon from 1898: "Ten Thousand Miles From Tip to Tip" meaning the extension of U.S. domination (symbolized by a bald eagle) from Puerto Rico to the Philippines. The cartoon contrasts this with a map of the smaller United States in 1798.

A variety of factors coincided during this period to bring about an accelerated pace of U.S. expansion:

• Wars such as the Spanish-American War that led to acquisition of former colonies of foreign states
• The industry and agriculture of the United States had grown beyond its need for consumption. Powerful business and political figures such as James G. Blaine believed that foreign markets were essential to further economic growth, promoting a more aggressive foreign policy.
• The prevalence of racism, notably Ernst Haeckel's "biogenic law," John Fiske's conception of Anglo-Saxon racial superiority, and Josiah Strong's call to "civilize and Christianize" - all manifestations of a growing Social Darwinism and racism in some schools of American political thought.^{[citation needed]}
• The development of Frederick Jackson Turner's "Frontier Thesis," which stated that the American frontier was the wellspring of its creativity and virility as a civilization. As the Western United States was gradually becoming less of a frontier and more of a part of America, many believed that overseas expansion was vital to maintaining the American spirit.
• The publication of Alfred T. Mahan's The Influence of Sea Power upon History in 1890, which advocated three factors crucial to The United States' ascension to the position of "world power": the construction of a canal in South America (later influencing the decision for the construction of the Panama Canal), expansion of the U.S. naval power, and the establishment of a trade/military post in the Pacific, so as to stimulate trade with China. This publication had a strong influence on the idea that a strong navy stimulated trade, and influenced policy makers such as Theodore Roosevelt and other proponents of a large navy.

In the period between the mid-1800s until the beginning of the twentieth century the United States gained a number of overseas islands and territories. The following areas have at one time or another been under the control of the United States of America and have not been fully incorporated into the country as states.

• Puerto Rico (1898-1952, obtained by the 1898 Treaty of Paris with Spain following the Spanish-American War, now a US commonwealth)
• Guam (1898-, obtained by the 1898 Treaty of Paris with Spain following the Spanish-American War)
• Cuba (1899-1902, 1906-1909, obtained by the 1898 Treaty of Paris with Spain following the Spanish-American War) Now independent with the exception of Guantanamo Bay Naval Base. The naval base occupies land which the United States leased from Cuba in 1903 "... for the time required for the purposes of coaling and naval stations." The two governments later agreed that, "So long as the United States of America shall not abandon the said naval station of Guantanamo or the two Governments shall not agree to a modification of its present limits, the station shall continue to have the territorial area that it now has, with the limits that it has on the date of the signature of the present Treaty."^[1][2]
• Republic of the Philippines (1898-1946, acquired by the 1898 Treaty of Paris with Spain and now independent through the Philippine Independence Act of 1935)
• American Samoa (1900-) Acquired as colony and established by Treaty
• U.S. Virgin Islands (1917-, purchased from Denmark)
• Panama Canal Zone (leased from 1903-1979 and now part of Panama)

[edit] Guano islands annexations

The Guano Islands Act was federal legislation passed by the U.S. Congress on August 18, 1856 enabling citizens of the United States to take possession of islands containing guano deposits. More than 50 islands were eventually claimed. Of those remaining unquestionably under U.S. control due to this act alone are Baker Island, Jarvis Island, Howland Island, and Johnston Atoll. Other islands could be included, depending on opinion. Some claims have never been relinquished but are not recognized by the US or the party currently claiming control.

In 1959, 94% of Hawaiians voted to relinquish all land claims (proposition 2) to the United States and become a state.

Others are no longer considered United States territory. Possession of Navassa Island is currently disputed with Haiti. An even more complicated case probably unresolved until now seems to be the Serranilla Bank and the Bajo Nuevo Bank. In 1971, the U.S. and Honduras signed a treaty recognizing Honduran sovereignty over the Swan Islands.

[edit] Annexation of Hawaii

The Kingdom of Hawai'i was long an independent monarchy in the mid-Pacific Ocean. During the 19th century, the first American missionaries and then business interests began to play major roles in the islands. Most notable were the powerful fruit and sugarcane corporations such as the Big Five, which included Castle & Cooke, Alexander & Baldwin, C. Brewer & Co., Amfac and Theo H. Davies & Co..

The Big Five engineered, financed and directed military coup, deposing and imprisoning the monarchy's last native Hawaiian leader, Queen Lili'uokalani in 1894. Although censured by the U.S. president and Congress, the Big Five maintained control until 1898, when president of the Republic of Hawai'i, Sanford Dole, was finally offered and agreed to annexation by the United States. The republic was dissolved in 1900 when the country became a territory of the US. Following voter approval of the Admission of Hawai'i Act, the Territory of Hawaii, on August 21, 1959, became the state of Hawai'i and the 50th state of the United States.

[edit] Annexation of Spanish Colonies following Spanish-American War

Main article: Spanish-American War

The Spanish-American War took place in 1898. The Treaty of Paris (1898), ended the Spanish-American war, giving the United States possession of the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, and Cuba. After the war, the United States greatly increased its international power.

Post-Spanish-American War map of "Greater America".

This era also saw the first scattered protests against American imperialism. Noted Americans such as Mark Twain spoke out forcefully against these ventures. Opponents of the war, including Twain and Andrew Carnegie, organized themselves into the American Anti-Imperialist League.

During this same period the American people continued to strongly chastise the European powers for their imperialism. The Second Boer War was especially unpopular in the United States and soured Anglo-American relations. The anti-imperialist press would often draw parallels between America in the Philippines and the British in the Second Boer War.^[3]

[edit] Guam

In Guam, settlement by foreign ethnic groups was small at first. After World War II showed the strategic value of the island, construction of a huge military base began along with a large influx of people from other parts of the world. Guam today has a very mixed population of 164,000. The indigenous Chamorros make up 37% of the population. The rest of the population consists mostly of Caucasians and Filipinos, with smaller groups of Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, Micronesians, Vietnamese and Indians. Guam today is almost totally Americanized. The situation is somewhat similar to that in Hawaii, but attempts to change Guam's status as an 'unincorporated' U.S. territory have yet to meet with success.

[edit] Philippines

Main article: Philippine-American War

The Philippine Revolution against Spain began in April of 1896, culminating two years later with a proclamation of independence and the establishment of the First Philippine Republic. However, at the end of the Spanish-American War the Treaty of Paris, transferred control of the Philippines from Spain to the United States. This agreement was not recognized by the nascent Philippine Government which, on June 2, 1899, proclaimed a Declaration of War against the United States.^[4] The Philippine-American War ensued, officially ending in 1902, though hostilities continued until about 1913. U.S. colonial rule of the Philippines started in 1905 with very limited local rule. Partial autonomy (commonwealth status) was granted in 1935, preparatory to a planned full independence from the United States in 1946. Preparation for a fully sovereign state was interrupted by the Japanese occupation of the islands during World War II. Full independence came with the recognition of Philippine sovereignty by the U.S. in 1946.

The Philippine-American War (1899 to 1902, with some hostilities continuing until 1913) is often cited as another instance of United States imperialism. While many Filipinos were initially delighted to be rid of the Spanish rule of the Philippines, the guerrilla fighters soon found that the Americans were not prepared to grant them much more autonomy than Spain had allowed. Thus, for the next 15 years, American forces engaged in a war in the jungles of the Philippines against the Filipino resistance. An estimated 200,000 Filipinos died from war, war-induced famine, and conditions in American concentration camps. Some American soldiers participated in war crimes, including torture and killing POWs.^[5]

The Philippines became a U.S. colony in the fashion of Europe's New Imperialism, with benevolent colonial practices. The Philippines remained under U.S. or Japanese rule until after World War II. The English language was made compulsory, but the native Tagalog also gained official status in 1937.^[6] Both languages are official today. The Filipinos welcomed the American reconquest from Japan in 1944, and regained their political independence in 1946.

[edit] Annexation of American Samoa

Germany, the United States, and Britain colonized the Samoan Islands. The nations came into conflict in the Second Samoan Civil War and the nations resolved their issues, establishing American Samoa as per the Treaty of Berlin, 1899. The US took control of its allotted region on June 7, 1900 with the Deed of Cession. American Samoa was under the control of the U.S. Navy from 1900 to 1951. From 1951 until 1977, Territorial Governors were appointed by the Secretary of the Interior. Immigration of Americans was never as strong as it was, for instance, in Hawaii; indigenous Samoans make up 89% of the population. The islands have been reluctant to separate from the US in any manner.

[edit] Annexation of U.S. Virgin Islands

In 1917, the United States purchased the former Danish Colony of St. Croix, St. John and St. Thomas, which is now the U.S. Virgin Islands. The United States purchased these islands because they feared that the islands might be seized as a submarine base during World War I. After a few months of negotiations, a sales price of $25 million was agreed. A referendum held in late 1916 confirmed the decision to sell by a wide margin. The deal was thus ratified and finalized on January 17, 1917, when the United States and Denmark exchanged their respective treaty ratifications. The U.S. took possession of the islands on March 31, 1917, when the territory was renamed the U.S. Virgin Islands. U.S. citizenship was granted to the inhabitants of the islands in 1927.

[edit] Trust territory

[edit] Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands

The Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI) was a United Nations trust territory in Micronesia (western Pacific) administered by the United States from July 18, 1947, comprising the former League of Nations Mandate administered by Japan and taken by the U.S. in 1944. On October 21, 1986, the U.S. ended its administration of the Marshall Islands district. These islands are now republics that, in 1986, signed a Compact of Free Association with the U.S.

[edit] Former possessions

US has voluntarily left some of its overseas territories and they have gained independence. Cuba (1902), the Philippines (1946), the Panama Canal Zone (1979), the Federated States of Micronesia (1986), Marshall Islands (1986), and Palau (1994) are examples.

[edit] See also

• Overseas interventions of the United States
• History of United States continental expansion
• Territorial acquisitions of the United States
• Historic regions of the United States
• List of U.S. foreign interventions since 1945
• American Empire
• Manifest Destiny
• Spread-eagleism
• American Exceptionalism
• Project for the New American Century
• New Imperialism and the emerging empires.

[edit] Notes

[edit] Bibliography

• Miller, Stuart Creighton (1984), Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899-1903, Yale University Press, ISBN 0300030819

[edit] External links

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:

American benevolence

• Judis, John B.. "Imperial Amnesia". Foreign Policy.  (Alternate link)
• On the Coming Decline and Fall of the US Empire. transnational.org. Retrieved on 2006-07-30.
• Basic Statistics of US Imperialism. whatreallyhappened.com. Retrieved on 2006-07-30. (Death toll, interventions, air war campaigns, debt-leverage imperialism, proxy wars, etc.)
• USA and Latin America. casahistoria.net. Retrieved on 2006-07-30. History links to the early US involvement in Latin America from casahistoria.