Strike action

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Female tailors on strike. New York City, February, 1910.
Female tailors on strike. New York City, February, 1910.

Strike action, often simply called a strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal by employees to perform work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances. Strikes became important during the industrial revolution, when mass labour became important in factories and mines. In most countries, they were quickly made illegal, as factory owners had far more political power than workers. Most western countries partially legalized striking in the late 19th or early 20th centuries.

Strikes are sometimes used to put pressure on governments to change policies. Occasionally, strikes destabilise the rule of a particular political party. A notable example is the Gdańsk Shipyard strike led by Lech Wałęsa. This strike was significant in the struggle for political change in Poland, and was an important mobilised effort that contributed to the fall of governments in communist East Europe.

Contents

[edit] History

The strike tactic has a very long history. Towards the end of the 20th dynasty, under Pharaoh Ramses III in ancient Egypt in the 12th century BC, the workers of the royal necropolis organized the first known strike or workers' uprising in history. The event was reported in detail on a papyrus at the time, which has been preserved, and is currently located in Turin.[1] In the modern era, sailors in 1768, in support of demonstrations in London, "struck" or removed the top-gallant sails of merchant ships at port, thus crippling the ships.

The Mexican Constitution was the first, all over the world, that constitutionally guaranteed the right to strike, in 1917.

A list of strikes of historic significance may be found here.

[edit] Legal prohibitions on strikes

[edit] In Russia

In "Marxist-Leninist" regimes, such as the former USSR or the People's Republic of China, striking is illegal and viewed as counter-revolutionary. Since the government in such systems claims to represent the working class, it has been argued that unions and strikes were not necessary. Most other totalitarian systems of the left and right also ban strikes. At one point Stalin remarked that unions were completely unnecessary, as workers would be striking against themselves.

[edit] In the UK

The Industrial Relations Act 1971 was repealed through the Trade Union and Labour Relations Act 1974, sections of which were repealed by the Employment Act 1982.

In 2003, there was a Firefighter dispute in the United Kingdom. The armed forces had to provide temporary cover, using outdated machinery. The strike action was legal under British labour law, although it was condemned by some.

The Code of Practice on Industrial Action Ballots and Notices, and sections 22 and 25 of the Employment Relations Act 2004, which concern industrial action notices, commenced on 1st October 2005.

Legislation was enacted in the aftermath of the 1919 police strikes forbidding British police from both taking industrial action and discussing the possibility with colleagues. The Police Federation created at the time to deal with employment grievances and provide representation to police officers, has increasingly put pressure on the government and repeatedly threatened strike action [2].

The current government is considering reintroducing the ban on strikes by prison staff, a law itself was repealed in the last decade. This is in the face of a proposed strike by 20,000 staff members. [3]

[edit] In the USA

The Railway Labor Act bans strikes by United States airline and railroad employees except in narrowly defined circumstances. The National Labor Relations Act generally permits strikes, but provides a mechanism to enjoin strikes in industries in which a strike would create a national emergency. The federal government most recently invoked these statutory provisions to obtain an injunction against a slowdown by the International Longshore and Warehouse Union in 2002.

Some jurisdictions prohibit all strikes by public employees (under such laws as the "Taylor Law" in New York). Other jurisdictions limit strikes only by certain categories of workers, particularly those regarded as critical to society: police and firefighters are among the groups commonly barred from striking in these jurisdictions. Some states, such as Michigan, Iowa or Florida, do not allow teachers in public schools to strike. Workers have sometimes circumvented these restrictions by falsely claiming inability to work due to illness — this is sometimes called a "sickout" or "blue flu." The term "red flu" has sometimes been used to describe this action when undertaken by firefighters.

It is also illegal for an employee of the United States Federal Government to strike. Prospective federal employees must sign standard form 61, an affidavit not to strike. Postal workers involved in 1978 wildcat strikes in Jersey City and Kearny, NJ, San Francisco, and Washington D.C. were fired under the presidency of Jimmy Carter and President Ronald Reagan terminated air traffic controllers after their refusal to return to work from an illegal strike in 1981.

[edit] Scabs

Scab driver and cart being stoned during sanitation worker strike. New York City, 1911.
Scab driver and cart being stoned during sanitation worker strike. New York City, 1911.

The term "scab," in the context of unions, is a highly derogatory "fighting word" that refers to people who continue to work during strike action by trade unionists. The act of working during a strike is also known as crossing the picket line (and, often, physically requires crossing a picket line) and, lamentably, can result in passive and/or active retaliation against that working person. Irwin, Jones, McGovern (2008) believe that the term 'scab' is part of a larger metaphor involving strikes. They argue that the picket line is symbolic of a wound and those who break its borders to return to work are the scabs who bond that wound. Others have argued that the word is not a part of a larger metaphor but, rather, originates from the old-fashioned English insult, "scab."[citation needed] "Blackleg" is an older word and is found in the late-nineteenth/early-twentieth century folk song from Northumberland, Blackleg Miner. The term does not necessarily owe its origins to this tune of unknown origin. The song is, however, notable for its lyrics that encourage violent acts against scabs.

People hired to replace striking workers are often derogatorily termed scabs by those in favor of the strike. The terms strike-breaker, blackleg, and scab labour are also used. Trade unionists also use the epithet, "scab," to refer to workers who are willing to accept terms that union workers have rejected and interfere with the strike action.

During "economic" strikes in the U.S., "scabs" may be hired as permanent replacements.

[edit] Union scabbing

Strike breakers, Chicago Tribune strike, 1986, Chicago, Illinois
Strike breakers, Chicago Tribune strike, 1986, Chicago, Illinois

The concept of union scabbing refers to any circumstance in which union workers, who normally might be expected to honor picket lines established by fellow working folk during a strike, are inclined or compelled to cross those picket lines or, in some manner, otherwise engage in workplace activity which may prove injurious to the strike.

Unionized workers are sometimes required to cross the picket lines established by other unions due to their organizations having signed contracts which include no-strike clauses. The no-strike clause typically requires that members of the union not conduct any strike action for the duration of the contract. Members who honor the picket line in spite of the contract frequently face discipline, for their action may be viewed as a violation of provisions of the contract. Therefore, any union conducting a strike action typically seeks to include a provision of amnesty for all who honored the picket line in the agreement that settles the strike.

No strike clauses may also prevent unionized workers from engaging in solidarity actions for other workers even when no picket line is crossed. For example, striking workers in manufacturing or mining produce a product which must be transported. In a situation where the factory or mine owners have replaced the strikers, unionized transport workers may feel inclined to refuse to haul any product that is produced by strikebreakers, yet their own contract obligates them to do so.

Historically the practice of union scabbing has been a contentious issue in the union movement, and a point of contention between adherents of different union philosophies. For example, supporters of industrial unions, which have sought to organize entire workplaces without regard to individual skills, have criticized craft unions for organizing workplaces into separate unions according to skill, a circumstance that makes union scabbing more common. Union scabbing is not, however, unique to craft unions.

[edit] Methods used by employers to deal with strikes

Most strikes called by unions are somewhat predictable; they typically occur after the contract has expired. However, not all strikes are called by union organizations — some strikes have been called in an effort to pressure employers to recognize unions. Other strikes may be spontaneous actions by working people. Spontaneous strikes are sometimes called "wildcat strikes"; most commonly, they are responses to serious (often life-threatening) safety hazards in the workplace rather than wage or hour disputes, etc.

Whatever the cause of the strike, employers are generally motivated to take measures to prevent them, mitigate the impact, or to undermine strikes when they do occur.

[edit] Strike preparation

Companies which produce products for sale will frequently increase inventories prior to a strike. Salaried employees may be called upon to take the place of strikers, which may entail advance training. If the company has multiple locations, personnel may be redeployed to meet the needs of reduced staff.

[edit] Strike breaking

Some companies negotiate with the union during a strike; other companies may see a strike as an opportunity to eliminate the union. This is sometimes accomplished by the importation of replacement workers, or strikebreakers. Historically, strike breaking has often coincided with union busting.

It was also called 'Black legging' in the early 20th century, during the Russian socialist movement.[4]

[edit] Union busting

One method of inhibiting a strike is elimination of the union that may launch it, which is sometimes accomplished through union busting. Union busting campaigns may be orchestrated by labor relations consultants, and may utilize the services of agencies that engage in intelligence gathering, or that provide asset protection services. Similar services may be engaged during attempts to defeat organizing drives.

[edit] Lockout

Another counter to a strike is a lockout, the form of work stoppage in which an employer refuses to allow employees to work. Two of the three employers involved in the Caravan park grocery workers strike of 2003-2004 locked out their employees in response to a strike against the third member of the employer bargaining group. Lockouts are, with certain exceptions, lawful under United States labor law.

[edit] Films

[edit] Non-Fiction

[edit] Fiction

  • Statschka Strike, Director: Sergei Eisenstein, Soviet Union 1924
  • Brüder brothers, Director: Werner Hochbaum, Germany 1929–On the general strike in the port of Hamburg, Germany in 1896/97
  • The Stars Look Down, Director: Carol Reed, England 1939 – Film about a strike over safety standards at a coal mine in North-East England - based on the Cronin novel
  • Salt of the Earth, Director: Herbert J. Biberman, USA 1953–Fictionalized account of an actual zinc-miners' strike in Silver City, New Mexico, in which women took over the picket line to circumvent an injunction barring "striking miners" from company property
  • I'm All Right Jack, Director: John Boulting, UK 1959–Satirical film about the postwar corruption of British industrialists and unions
  • La Reprise du travail aux usines Wonder, Director: Jacques Willemont France 1968–A short film on the resumption of work after May '68
  • Ådalen 31, Director Bo Widerberg, Sweden 1969.
  • Matewan, Director: John Sayles, USA 1987–A fictionalized history of one episode in the labour wars between West Virginia coal miners and mineowners during the 1920s
  • Bread and Roses, Director: Ken Loach(UK), USA 2000 – A film about janitors fighting for the right to unionize in contemporary Los Angeles
  • Newsies, Director: Kenny Ortega, USA 1992–A musical loosely based on the New York Newsboys Strike of 1899.
  • Billy Elliot, Director: Stephen Daldry, (UK) 2000 – story about a young boy in a Northern English town who wants to become a ballet dancer; set on the backdrop of the 1984 Miners' Strike in the United Kingdom.
  • Babylon 5: In one episode the civilian workers on the station who work the docks for incoming ships go on strike. As they are government employees their strike is considered illegal, and a government negotiator is sent. The way the negotiator deals with the strike helps demonstrate the negative turn politics are taking on Earth.
  • Hoffa, Director: Danny DeVito, United States of America 1992; a story about the rise and fall of Teamster leader James "Jimmy" Hoffa (Jack Nicholson) as told by his loyal associate Bobby Ciaro (Danny DeVito).
  • Battlestar Galactica the episode "Dirty Hands" focussed on strikes in the face of an emerging class system within the fleet.

[edit] Other meanings

  • Sometimes "go on strike" is used as slang for machinery or equipment not working due to malfunction, e.g. "My computer's scanner's gone on strike".

[edit] References

  1. ^ François Daumas, (1969). Ägyptische Kultur im Zeitalter der Pharaonen, pp. 309. Knaur Verlag, Munich
  2. ^ Police in strike action threat
  3. ^ Ministers seek prison strike ban
  4. ^ Arthur Koestler, Darkness at Noon, p. 60.

[edit] Bibliography

  • Norwood, Stephen H. Strikebreaking and Intimidation. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 2002. ISBN 0807827053
  • Silver, Beverly J. Forces of Labor: Workers' Movements and Globalization Since 1870. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0521520770
  • Smith, Stephanie. Household Words: Bloomers, Sucker, Bombshell, Scab, Nigger, Cyber. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006. ISBN 0816645531

[edit] See also

 Organized Labour Portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

[edit] External links

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strike_action"
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