Livy

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Titus Livius (traditionally 59 BC – AD 17^[1]), known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome, Ab Urbe Condita, from its founding (traditionally dated to 753 BC) through the reign of Augustus in Livy's own time.

Contents 1 Life and works 2 Reception 3 Politics 4 References and further reading 5 Notes 6 External links

[edit] Life and works

Livy was born in Patavium, the modern Padua. The title of his most famous work, Ab Urbe Condita ("From the City having been founded"), expresses the scope and magnitude of Livy's undertaking. He wrote in a mixture of annual chronology and narrative—often having to interrupt a story to announce the elections of new consuls as this was the way that the Romans kept track of the years. Early scholars have claimed that Livy's lack of historical data should be attributed to the sacking of Rome in 387 BC by the Gauls^[2]. However, it is now thought that the Gauls' interest in movable plunder, rather than destruction, kept damage to a minimum^[3]. This idea is supported, in part, by the lack of archaeological evidence to prove that the Gallic sack ever happened: for example, the burnt layer under the comitium, once attributed to Brennus, is now dated to the 6th century BC^[4].

Livy wrote the majority of his works during the reign of Augustus. However, he is often identified with an attachment to the Roman Republic and a desire for its restoration. Since the later books discussing the end of the Republic and the rise of Augustus did not survive, this is a moot point. Certainly Livy questioned some of the values of the new regime but it is likely that his position was more complex than a simple "republic/empire" preference. Augustus does not seem to have held these views against Livy, and entrusted his great-nephew, the future emperor Claudius, to his tutelage. His effect on Claudius was apparent during the latter's reign, as the emperor's oratory closely adheres to Livy's account of Roman history.

Livy's writing style was poetic and archaic in contrast to Julius Caesar's and Cicero's styles. Also, he often wrote from the Romans' opponent's point of view in order to accent the Romans' virtues in their conquest of Italy and the Mediterranean. In keeping with his poetic tendencies, he did little to distinguish between fact and fiction. Although he frequently plagiarized previous authors, he hoped that moral lessons from the past would serve to advance the Roman society of his day.

Livy's work was originally composed of 142 books, of which only 35 are extant; these are Books 1–10 and 21–45 (with major lacunae in 41 and 43–45). A fragmentary palimpsest of the 91st book was discovered in the Vatican Library in 1772, containing about a thousand words, and several papyrus fragments of previously unknown material, much smaller, have been found in Egypt since 1900, most recently about forty words from Book 11, unearthed in the 1980s. Livy was abridged, in antiquity, to an epitome, which survives for Book 1, but was itself abridged into the so-called Periochae, which is simply a list of contents, but which survives. An epitome of Books 37–40 and 48–55 was also uncovered at Oxyrhynchus. So we have some idea of the topics Livy covered in the lost books, if often not what he said about them.

His sources include the annalists, including Quintus Fabius Pictor, Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius, Sempronius Asellio and Valerius Antias, but also the Greek historian Polybius, especially for events in the Eastern Mediterranean.

In turn, a number of Roman authors used Livy, including Aurelius Victor, Cassiodorus, Eutropius, Festus, Florus, Granius Licinianus and Orosius. Julius Obsequens used Livy, or a source with access to Livy, to compose his De Prodigiis, an account of supernatural events in Rome, from the consulship of Scipio and Laelius to that of Paulus Fabius and Quintus Aelius.

A digression in Book 9, Sections 17–19, suggests that the Romans would have beaten Alexander the Great if he lived longer and turned west to attack the Romans, making this the oldest known alternate history.^[5]

[edit] Reception

Livy's work met with instant acclaim. His books were published in sets of ten, although when entirely completed, his whole work was available for sale in its entirety. His highly literary approach to his historical writing renders his works very entertaining, and they remained constantly popular from his own day, through the Middle Ages, and into the modern world. Dante speaks highly of him in his poetry, and Francis I of France commissioned extensive artwork treating Livian themes; Niccolò Machiavelli's work on republics, the Discourses on Livy is presented as a commentary on the History of Rome. That he was chosen by Rome's first emperor to be the private tutor to his eventual successor indicates Livy's renown as a great writer and sage. As topics from his history appear to have been used for writing topics in Roman schools, it is more than likely that his works, or sections, were used as textbooks. The two ten-book sets that remained popular throughout the millennia are the first ten books, describing the founding of Rome and its conquest of Italy, and the third set of ten books (XXI to XXX) recounting the war with Hannibal, which he himself indicates is his greatest theme. He can be looked upon as the prose counterpart of Vergil in Golden Age Latin literature.

[edit] Politics

Many of Livy's comments on Roman politics seem surprisingly modern today. For example, he wrote (of the year 445 BC):

War and political dissension made the year a difficult one. Hardly had it begun, when the tribune Canuleius introduced a bill for legalizing intermarriage between the nobility and the commons. The senatorial party objected strongly on the grounds not only that the patrician blood would thereby be contaminated but also that the hereditary rights and privileges of the gentes, or families, would be lost. Further, a suggestion, at first cautiously advanced by the tribunes, that a law should be passed enabling one of the two consuls to be a plebeian, subsequently hardened into the promulgation, by nine tribunes, of a bill by which the people should be empowered to elect to the consulship such men as they thought fit, from either of the two parties. The senatorial party felt that if such a bill were to become law, it would mean not only that the highest office of state would have to be shared with the dregs of society but that it would, in effect, be lost to the nobility and transferred to the commons. It was with great satisfaction, therefore, that the Senate received a report, first that Ardea had thrown off her allegiance to Rome in resentment at the crooked practice which had deprived her of her territory; secondly, that troops from Veii had raided the Roman frontier, and, thirdly, that the Volscians and Aequians were showing uneasiness at the fortification of Verrugo. In the circumstances it was good news, for the nobility could look forward even to an unsuccessful war with greater complacency than to an ignominious peace. ^[6]

[edit] References and further reading

• Burck, Erich (1934). Die Erzählungskunst des T. Livius. Berlin: Weidmann. 

• Chaplin, Jane (2001). Livy's Exemplary History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198152743. 

• Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony, eds (2003). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198606413. 

• Feldherr, Andrew (1998). Spectacle and Society in Livy's History. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520210271. 

• Jaeger, Mary (1997). Livy's Written Rome. University of Michigan Press. ISBN B000S73SBI. 

• Kraus, C. S.; Woodman, A. J. (2006). Latin Historians. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199222933. 

• Lipovsky, James (1984). A Historiographical Study of Livy: Books VI-X. New Hampshire: Ayer Company. ISBN B0006YIJN0. 

• Luce, T. James (1977). Livy: The Composition of his History. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691035529. 

• Mackail, J. W. (2008). Latin Literature. BiblioLife. ISBN 978-0554321998. 

• Miles, Gary B. (1997). Livy: Reconstructing Early Rome. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801484261. 

• Oakley, S. P. (2008). A Commentary on Livy, Books VI-X. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199237852. 

• Ogilvie, R. M. (1965). A Commentary on Livy Books 1 to 5. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN B0000CMI9B. 

• Radice, Betty (1982). Rome and Italy: Books VI-X of the History of Rome from its Foundation. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-044388-2. 

• Walsh, P. G. (1996) [1967]. Livy, his historical aims and methods. Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 978-1853991301 1. 

[edit] Notes

[edit] External links

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Livy

Primary sources

• Ab Urbe Condita (Latin)
• The History of Rome

• • Roman History, Books I-III
  • The History of Rome, Books 09 to 26
  • The History of Rome, Books 27 to 36

Secondary sources

• Livius.org: Livy