Montenegrin language

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Montenegrin Crnogorski Црногорски
Spoken in:	Montenegro[1]
Total speakers:	about 144,838 people; some 22% of the population of Montenegro (2003)
Ranking:	official
Language family:	Indo-European  Slavic   South Slavic    Western South Slavic     Ijekavian Štokavian      Serbian       Montenegrin
Official status
Official language in:	Montenegro
Regulated by:	not regulated
Language codes
ISO 639-1:	none
ISO 639-2:	none (B)	none (T)
ISO 639-3:	none
Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode.

Montenegrin language (Crnogorski jezik, Црногорски језик) is the name given to the Ijekavian-Shtokavian dialect spoken in Montenegro. Generally, it is recognized as a variant of the Serbian language, but some Montenegrins refer to their specific dialect as a language on its own. Since 2004 the Montenegrin administration has slowly promoted the idea of a Montenegrin language into the public, a movement which has its origins as far as 1993. As of Montenegrin 2006 independence, there is an ongoing controversy over the subject, culminating with its proclamation as the official language of Montenegro in the new Constitution on 22 October 2007.

[edit] Dialect to language name mapping

The table below shows the relationship between the dialects of Central South Slavic diasystem and the names their native speakers might call them.

There's also small community of Croats in Romania, around the city of Craşova, that use Torlakian dialect.

[edit] Official status and speakers' preference

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The language remains an ongoing issue in Montenegro. In the previous census of 1991, the vast majority, 510,320 or 82.97% of Montenegrin citizens, declared themselves as speakers of the then official language: Serbo-Croatian. The 1981 population census also recorded a Serbo-Croat-speaking majority. However in the first Communist censuses, the vast majority of the population declared Serbian their native tongue. Such is also the case with the first recorded population census in Montenegro, in 1909, when approximately 95% of the population of the Princedom of Montenegro declared Serbian their native language. According to the Constitution of Montenegro, the official language of the republic, since 1992, is Serbian of the Ijekavian standard. After World War II and until 1992, the official language of Montenegro was Serbo-Croat. Before that, in the previous old Montenegrin realm, Serbian was the language in usage. The Serbian language was the officially used language in Communist Montenegro, until after the 1950 Novi Sad Agreement that defined the Serbo-Croat, and "Serbo-Croatian" introduced into the Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Montenegro in 1974. In the late nineties and early twenty-first century, organizations promoting Montenegrin as a distinct language appeared, and since 2004 the Democratic Party of Socialists of Montenegro regime introduced the term to usage. The new constitution, adopted on 19 October 2007, deemed Montenegrin to be the official language of Montenegro.

The most recent population census conducted in Montenegro was in 2003, when it was still in its state union with Serbia. According to it, 144,838 citizens or 21.53% of the population declared "Montenegrin" their native language. After Djukanovic's regime conducted the controversial act of deleting Montenegrin citizens living abroad in an effort to evade diaspora votes, the official number that was published was 136,208, comprising 21.96% of the total population. The speakers' statistics is as follows:

• 106,214 Montenegrins (77.98%)
• 13,627 Slavic Muslims (10%)
• 12,549 Bosniacs (9.21%)
• 1,375 Croats (1.02%)
• 2,443 others (1.79%)

In 2003 401,382 or 59.67% of Montenegrin citizens declared the official Serbian their native tongue. After the deletion of citizens abroad, the final published figure was 393,740 or 63.49% of the total population. The following is the speakers' statistics:

• 197,684 Serbs (50.21%)
• 156,374 Montenegrins (39.72%)
• 8,696 Slavic Muslims (2.21%)
• 2,723 Bosniacs (0.69%)
• 2,529 Croats (0.64%)
• 1,705 Yugoslavs (0.43%)
• 24,029 others (6.1%)

President Filip Vujanović claimed polls say over 60% of Montenegrin population would support his proposal for mix, "MonteSerbian language" or "Serbo-Montenegrin language" (crnogorsko-srpski jezik, srpsko-crnogorski jezik). With the polls heating up, the opposition uniting and stalling of the negotiations for a new Constitution, a similar situation like the one before the independence referendum is arising in Montenegro. A poll from late 2007, declaration of language of the population:

• Serbian - 49.6%
• Montenegrin - 34.9%
• Serbo-Montenegrin or MonteSerbian - 4%
• others - 3.6%
• Mother tongue - 7.8%
• undecided - 7.8%

Some people may compare the situation with Montenegrin to the positions of Croatian and Bosnian, and even come to the conclusion that the position of Montenegrin fully parallels the positions of the others. However, there are significant differences between the three: while Croatian and Bosnian are standard languages and official languages, there is no accepted standard for Montenegrin and it is not yet official anywhere (the official language of the Republic of Montenegro remains Serbian at the start of Montenegro's independence).

Mijat Šuković, a prominent Montenegrin lawyer, wrote a draft version of the constitution, which passed the parliement's constitutional commitee. Šuković suggested Montenegrin as the official language of Montenegro. The Venice Commission, an advisory body of the Council of Europe, had a generally positive attitude towards the draft of the constitution, but did not address the language and church issues, calling them symbolical. Now it is down to the Montenegrin political elite to find a suitable solution, but finding a compromise will certainly be a difficult task, as the issue remains a hot topic. A compromise was reached and the new constitution was ratified on 19 October 2007, declaring Montenegrin as the official language of Montenegro, as well as recognising Albanian, Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian.

However as it seems by time more and more unlikely, Montenegro is getting closer to another referendum, possibly a rematch of the sides that fought in the 2006 independence referendum, with slight changes. The ruling Democratic Party of Socialists of Montenegro and Socialdemocratic Party of Montenegro stand for nothing but plainly renaming the country's official language into Montenegrin, meeting opposition from the Socialist People's Party of Montenegro, the People's Party, the Democratic Serb Party, the Bosniak Party, the Movement for Changes as well as the Serb List coalition led by the Serb People's Party. However, a referendum was not needed, as two-thirds majority of the parliament voted for the Constitution, including the ruling coalition, Movement for Changes, the Bosniaks and the Liberals, while the pro-Serbian parties voted against and the Albanian minority parties abstained from voting. The Constitution was thus ratified and adopted on 19 October 2007, recognising Montenegrin as the official language of Montenegro.

[edit] Linguistic considerations

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The neutrality and factual accuracy of this section are disputed. Please see the relevant discussion on the talk page.

Montenegrins speak subdialects of the Shtokavian dialect of Serbo-Croatian language:

• East Herzegovinian dialect (in the west and northwest, similar to the one spoken in most of Eastern Herzegovina, Western Serbia and Dubrovnik area) and
• Zeta-South Sandzak dialect (spoken in the rest of the country).

Their borders are blurred due to migration of population and influence of standard language, based on Eastern Herzegovinian; the principal difference is in accentuation. The vocabulary of the dialect has some distinct features, but words different from other dialects are few (e.g. "sjutra" or "śutra" is used in Montenegro instead of "sutra" (tomorrow), which is used in standard Serbian, Bosnian or Croatian, and "nijesam" is used in Montenegro instead of "nisam" (I am not or I have not [done]), which is used in standard Serbian, Bosnian or Croatian).

Proposed Montenegrin language alphabet, which contains 3 more letters than Serbian-Croatian counterpart — Ś, Ź, and З

Some other characteristics are:

• Using što for interrogative form of what (as in Croatian, and unlike Serbian šta).
• Supine or "short infinitive" (pjevat, radit, nać, moć) instead of standard "full infinitive" (pjevati, raditi, naći, moći).
• The group a + o gave a (ka instead of kao, reka for rekao), like in other Shtokavian and Chakavian vernaculars along the Adriatic coast. The much more common contraction in other Shtokavian vernaculars is ao > o.
• The reflex of long jat, ije, is bisyllabic, while it is diphthongal in most of the other ijekavian areas (and even considered a separate phoneme by some Croatian linguists^[2]). For example, the distinction can be clearly heard in the opening verses of the national anthems of Montenegro and Croatia. However, the Montenegrin form is the standard Ijekavian form in the Serbian (Ijekavian) standard, while the monosyllabic variant is considered a dialectism.
• Several "hyper-ijekavisms" (words keeping a jat reflex from a non-existing or elsewhere differently evolved original) (nijesam, tijeh, ovijeh, ovijema, tijema and kisjelo (or kiśelo when the iotation occurs),^[3] where many other shtokavian dialects use nisam, tih, ovih, ovima, tima and kiselo).
• Hyper-iotations (đe for gdje, đevojka for djevojka, ođe for ovdje, neđe for negdje, niđe for nigdje, đeca for djeca, lećeti for letjeti, bačiti for baciti, ćerati for tjerati, velji for veliki, ćeskoba for tjeskoba etc). The iotation also affects sounds [s] and [z] to a much greater extent than in some other shtokavian dialects, yielding /ʃʲ/ or /ɕ/ for /sj/, and /ʒʲ/ or /ʑ/ for /zj/ ^{[citation needed]}. (/ɕɛdi/, /ɕɛkira/, /ɕɛver/, /kiɕɛɔ/, /paɕɛ/, /iʑelitsa/ etc.). Some proponents of Montenegrin language propose amending of the alphabet with the letters Ś and Ź representing those sounds.
• Several differently builded words such as: sjutra (or śutra when the iotation occurs) instead of usual sutra, or puštit(i) instead of pustit(i). Furthermore, some verbs form their imperative mood in a specific way, for example: viđet(i) - viđi instead of vidi; ležat(i) - leži instead of lezi.
• Other common words, usually associated with Croatian language, and mostly used in some dialects and speeches of Montenegro, and less in the literary language: to do - činit(i) along with uradit(i); to talk - velit(i) along with pričat(i); home - doma along with kući; farmland - baština along with njiva; to intend - kanit(i) along with namjeravat(i); to eat - obidovat(i) along with objedovat(i) - also ije along with jede; ugly - grdan along with ružan; stone - krš along with kamen; wave - val along with talas; mad - ma(h)nit along with bijesan; ultimate - potonja along with poslednja; dog - kučak along with pas; rooster - kokot along with pijetao; sand - pržina along with pijesak; rock - greda or pećina along with stijena; show off - zorna and zorit(i); etc. ^{[citation needed]}
• A number of words common with Macedonian language, usually used in some dialects and speeches of Montenegro, and less used in the literary language: to speak - zborit(i); work and to work - rabota and rabotat(i); to pluck - skubat(i), to freeze - ukočanjit(i); rice - oris or oriz along with pirinač and riža; onion - kromid along with luk; to go - odit(i) along with ić(i); shut up - muči along with ćuti; to cry - pištit(i) along with plačat(i); fire - oganj along with vatra; spoon - ložica along with kašika; scissors - nožica along with makaze; easy - lasno along with lako etc. ^{[citation needed]}
• A number of words with Italian origin, usually used in some dialects and speeches of Montenegro, especially in the littoral and Montenegro proper (Cetinje, Podgorica etc.), and less used in the literary language: plate - pjat; stairs - skale; bean - faзola, etc. ^{[citation needed]}
• A number of other words that are used in some dialects and speeches of Montenegro that have different local forms; or traditional words that have been repelled by loans from neighbouring languages: melon - pipun along with dinja; rice - oris or oriz along with pirinač and riža; watermelon - bostan along with lubenica; onion - kromid along with luk; potato - krtola along with krompir; wallet - takulin along with novčanik; table - tavulin along with sto; bucket - karić along with kanta; tailor - terzija along with krojač; pillow - kušin along with jastuk; hour - ura along with sat; dog - biзin or bizin along with kučak and pas; fork - pirun along with viljuška; to go - odit(i) along with ić(i); shut up - muči along with ćuti; to cry - pištit(i) along with plačat(i); gypsy - gabelj along with cigan; kitchen - kužina along with kuhinja; fire - oganj along with vatra; wolf - kurjak along with vuk; answer - odzbor along with odgovor; without - liše along with bez; leather - čapra along with koža; spoon - ložica along with kašika; twig - šibak along with prut; sugar - cukar along with šečer; bag - saket along with kesa; scissors - nožica along with makaze; thief - lupež along with lopov; to start - pođet(i) along with krenet(i); pregnant - sandruga along with bremenita and trudna; bride - odiva along with nevjesta; belt - remnik along with kaiš; pistol - ljevor along with pištolj; mirror - zrcalo along with ogledalo; to get mad - srčit(i) along with ljutit(i); easy - lasno along with lako; to learn - ulječit(i) along with učit(i); to pass - pasat(i) along with proć(i); friend - murga along with drugar; trouble-maker - maragun along with mangup; what - česa along with šta and što^[4]; good job - aferim along with svaka čast; idiot - nesoj along with budalo; milk - varenika along with mlijeko; tomato - pamidora along with paradajz, etc. *Note that only the latter words are used in the standard written language and are common with the Serbian or Croatian standard.
• Sound [ʣ], which is very rarely used, usually in some loans from Italian (such as brondza). Allocated letter in the newly proposed Montenegrin alphabet is З.
• Sound /xʋ/ (hv) is rarely used and is usually replaced by sound /f/ (kahva - kafa, hvala - fala etc.).
• Sound /x/ (h) is used in most speeches of Montenegro, unlike most other Štokavian dialects, where it was lost.

Those features present just a general overview, as not all of them are confined to Montenegro, and not all of them are universally spoken in the country itself. In other words, their isoglosses don't match the country borders.

Alphabet

• Abeceda: A B C Č Ć D Dž Đ E F G H I J K L Lj M N Nj O P R S Š Ś T U V Z З Ž Ź

The proponents of the separate Montenegrin language tend to prefer using Latin alphabet over the Cyrillic, which was traditionally used in Montenegro before 2006.

[edit] Literature

Many literary works of authors from Montenegro provide examples of the local Montenegrin vernacular. The medieval literature was mostly written in Old Church Slavonic and its recensions, but most of the 19th century works were written in some of the dialects and speeches of Montenegro. They include the folk literature collected by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić and other authors, as well as books of the writers from Montenegro, such as Petar Petrović Njegoš's Gorski vijenac (The Mountain Wreath), Marko Miljanov's Primjeri čojstva i junaštva (The Examples of Humanity and Bravery), etc. In the second half of the 19th century and later, the East Herzegovina dialect, which served as a base for the standard Serbo-Croatian language, was often used instead of the Zeta-Sanjak dialect, characteristical for most speeches of Montenegro. Petar Petrović Njegoš, one of the most respectable Montenegrin authors, changed many characteristics of the Zeta-Sanjak dialect from the manuscript of his Gorski vijenac to those proposed by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić as a standard for the Serbian language. For example, most of the accusatives of place, used in the Zeta-Sanjak dialect, were changed by Njegoš to locatives, used in the Serbian standard. Thus the stanzas "U dobro je lako dobar biti, / na muku se poznaju junaci" from the manuscript were chaged to "U dobru je lako dobar biti, / na muci se poznaju junaci" in the printed version. Other works of later Montenegrin authors were also often modified to the East Herzegovinian forms, in order to follow the Serbian language literary norm. However, some characteristics of the traditional Montenegrin Zeta-Sanjak dialect sometimes used to appear as well. For example, the poem Onamo namo by Nikola I Petrović Njegoš, although it was written in East Herzegovinian Serbian standard, contains several Zeta-Sanjak forms: "Onamo namo, za brda ona" (accusative, instead of instrumental case za brdima onim), and "Onamo namo, da viđu (instead of vidim) Prizren", and so on.

[edit] Language politics

Most mainstream politicians and other proponents of Montenegrin language simply state that the issue is chiefly one of self-determination and the people's right to call the language as they want, rather than an attempt to artificially create a new language when there is none. The Declaration of Montenegrin PEN Center^[5] states that "Montenegrin language does not mean a systemically separate language, but just one of four names (Montenegrin, Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian) by which Montenegrins name their part of Shtokavian system, commonly inherited with Muslims, Serbs and Croats". Introduction of Montenegrin language has also been supported by other important academic institutions, such as the Matica crnogorska, although meeting opposition from the Montenegrin Academy of Sciences and Arts.

Some proponents go further. The chief proponent of Montenegrin is Zagreb-educated dr Vojislav Nikčević, professor at the Department of Language and Literature at the University of Montenegro and the head of the Institute for Montenegrin Language in the capital Podgorica. His dictionaries and grammars are printed by Croatian publishers as the major Montenegrin publishing houses such as Obod in Cetinje, as always, opt for the official nomenclature specified in the Constitution (Serbian until 1974, Serbo-Croatian to 1992, Serbian to the present).^[6] Nikčević advocates amending of the Latin alphabet with three letters Ś, Ź, and З and corresponding Cyrillic letters Ć, З́ and S (representing IPA: [ç], [ʝ] and [ʣ] respectively).^[7]

Opponents acknowledge that these sounds can be heard by many Montenegrin speakers, however, argue that they are relatively rare and do not form minimal pairs, and so are not considered phonemes by that criterion. In addition, there are speakers in Montenegro who don't utter them and speakers of Serbian and Croatian outside of Montenegro (notably in Herzegovina and Bosanska Krajina) who do. In addition, introduction of those letters could pose significant technical difficulties (Eastern European code page ISO/IEC 8859-2 does not contain letter З, for example, and the corresponding letters were not proposed for Cyrillic).

Montenegro's former prime minister Milo Đukanović declared his open support for the formalization of the Montenegrin language by declaring himself as a speaker of the Montenegrin language, in an October 2004 interview with Belgrade daily Politika. Official Montenegrin government communiqués are given in English and Montenegrin on the government's webpage.^[8] The official web page of the President of Montenegro states that it is provided in "Montenegrin-Serbian version" (Crnogorsko-srpska verzija).

In 2004, the government of Montenegro changed the school curriculum in such a way that name of the mandatory classes teaching the language was changed from "Serbian language" to "Mother tongue (Serbian, Montenegrin, Croatian, Bosnian)". This change was made, according to the government, in order to better reflect the diversity of languages spoken among citizens in the republic and to protect human rights of non-Serb citizens in Montenegro who declare themselves as speakers of other languages.^[9]

This decision resulted in a dozen Serb teachers declaring a strike and a number of parents refusing to send their children to schools. The cities affected by the strike included Nikšić, Podgorica, Berane, Pljevlja and Herceg Novi.^[10].

[edit] References

1. ^ http://www.plav.net/zavicaj/popis_2003.htm
2. ^ "Ije je je", Ivo Škarić, Vijenac, Matica Hrvatska
3. ^ According to Pravopis srpkog jezika, Mitar Pešikan, Jovan Jerković, Mato Pižurica, Novi Sad 1993, p. 137. old Slavic root had an alternate form kisel/kisĕl.
4. ^ http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=cesa+cg.yu&btnG=Search
5. ^ Declaration of Montenegrin PEN Center on Constitutional State of Montenegrin Language
6. ^ Pravopis crnogorskog jezika, Vojislav Nikčević. Crnogorski PEN Centar, 1997
7. ^ Proposed Montenegrin alphabet, Montenet.org
8. ^ Official site of Government of Montenegro
9. ^ "Slobodan Backović potpisao odluku o preimenovanju srpskog u maternji jezik, Voice of America, 26 March 2004"
10. ^ (Serbian)"Počelo otpuštanje profesora srpskog", Glas Javnosti, 17 September 2004.

[edit] See also

• Dialect continuum
• Montenegrins
• Differences in standard Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian

[edit] External links

• "What Language Do Montenegrins Speak?", Aida Ramusovic, Transitions Online, 16 April 2003.
• (Serbian) "Govorite li crnogorski?", Violeta Arsenić, Vreme, 4 March 2000.
• Montenet.org: Language in Montenegro
• Standard Language as an Instrument of Culture and the Product of National History, Pavle Ivić
• Montenegrin language on Montenegrina
• Česa

[edit] Examples of nomenclature

• Official page of President of Montenegro with Crnogorsko-srpska verzija or 'Montenegrin-Serbian version' in top left corner
• Official page of Montenegrin Government with CRNOGORSKI or 'Montenegrin' in top left corner
• Former page of Montenegrin Government (between 2000-2001) with srpski or 'Serbian' at the bottom