Napoleon I of France

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Napoléon I
Emperor of the French, King of Italy Mediator of the Swiss Confederation Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine
Napoleon in His Study by Jacques-Louis David (1812)
Reign	20 March 1804–6 April 1814 1 March 1815–22 June 1815
Coronation	2 December 1804
Full name	Napoléon Bonaparte
Born	15 August 1769(1769-08-15)
Birthplace	Ajaccio, Corsica
Died	5 May 1821 (aged 51)
Place of death	Saint Helena
Buried	Les Invalides, Paris
Predecessor	French Consulate (as Executive Power of the French First Republic, with himself as First Consul); Previous ruling Monarch : Louis XVI as King of the French (died 1793)
Successor	Louis XVIII (de facto) Napoleon II (de jure)
Consort	Joséphine de Beauharnais Marie Louise of Austria
Issue	Napoleon II
Royal House	Bonaparte
Father	Carlo Buonaparte
Mother	Letizia Ramolino

Napoleon I (born Napoleone di Buonaparte, later Napoléon Bonaparte)^[1] (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a French military and political leader who had significant impact on modern European history. He was a general during the French Revolution, the ruler of France as Premier Consul of the French Republic, Empereur des Français, King of Italy, Mediator of the Swiss Confederation and Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine.

Born in Corsica and trained in mainland France as an artillery officer, he first rose to prominence as a general of the French Revolution, leading several successful campaigns against the First Coalition and the Second Coalition arrayed against France. In late 1799, Napoleon staged a coup d'état and installed himself as First Consul; five years later he became the Emperor of the French. In the first decade of the nineteenth century, he turned the armies of France against almost every major European power, dominating continental Europe through a lengthy streak of military victories—epitomized through battles such as Austerlitz and Friedland—and through the formation of extensive alliance systems. He appointed close friends and several members of his family as monarchs and important government figures of French-dominated states.

The disastrous French invasion of Russia in 1812 marked a turning point in Napoleon's fortunes. The campaign wrecked the Grande Armée, which never regained its previous strength. In October 1813, the Sixth Coalition defeated his forces at Leipzig and then invaded France. The coalition forced Napoleon to abdicate in April 1814, exiling him to the island of Elba. Less than a year later, he returned to France and regained control of the government in the Hundred Days (les Cent Jours) prior to his final defeat at Waterloo on 18 June 1815. Napoleon spent the remaining six years of his life under British supervision on the island of St. Helena.

Napoleon developed relatively few military innovations, although his placement of artillery into batteries and the elevation of the army corps as the standard all-arms unit have become accepted doctrines in virtually all large modern armies. He drew his best tactics from a variety of sources and scored several major victories with a modernized and reformed French army. His campaigns are studied at military academies all over the world and he is widely regarded as one of history's greatest commanders. Aside from his military achievements, Napoleon is also remembered for the establishment of the Napoleonic Code (Code Napoléon), which laid the bureaucratic foundations for the modern French state.

Contents 1 Early life 2 Early military career 2.1 "A whiff of grapeshot" 2.2 First Italian campaign 2.3 Egyptian expedition 3 Ruler of France 3.1 Coup d'état of 18 Brumaire 3.2 Second Italian campaign 3.3 Interlude of peace 3.4 Coronation as Emperor 3.5 Coalitions against Napoleon 3.6 Invasion of Russia 3.7 Defeat and exile 3.8 The Hundred Days 4 Exile and death on Saint Helena 5 Cause of death 5.1 Arsenic poisoning theory 5.2 Stomach cancer theory 6 Marriages and children 7 Legacy 8 Napoleon's height 9 Films 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links 15 Organizations studying Napoleon

Early life

At birth Napoleon was named Napoleone di Buonaparte (in Corsican, Nabolione or Nabulione) after his deceased elder brother Napoleone, who died in 1765. Napoleon was born in the town of Ajaccio on Corsica, France, on 15 August 1769, one year after the island was transferred to France by the Republic of Genoa. However, neither Napoleone nor his family used the nobiliary particle di. He later adopted the more French-sounding Napoléon Bonaparte. Napoleon wrote to Pasquale di Paoli (leader of a Corsican revolt against the French) in 1789: "I was born when my country was dying. Thirty thousand Frenchmen disgorged upon our shores, drowning the throne of liberty in a sea of blood; such was the hateful spectacle that offended my infant eyes." Napoleon's heritage earned him popularity among Italians during his Italian campaigns.^[2]

The family, formerly known as Buonaparte, were minor Italian nobility coming from Tuscan stock of Lombard origin set in Lunigiana.^[3] The family moved to Florence and later broke into two branches; the original one, Buonaparte-Sarzana, were compelled to leave Florence, coming to Corsica in the 16th century when the island was a possession of the Republic of Genoa.

His father Carlo Buonaparte was born 1746 and in the Republic of Genoa; an attorney, he was named Corsica's representative to the court of Louis XVI in 1778, where he remained for a number of years. The dominant influence of Napoleon's childhood was his mother, Maria Letizia Ramolino.^[4] Her firm discipline helped restrain the rambunctious Napoleon, nicknamed Rabullione (the "meddler" or "disrupter").

Napoleon had an elder brother, Joseph, and younger siblings Lucien, Elisa, Louis, Pauline, Caroline and Jérôme.

Napoleon's noble, moderately affluent background and family connections afforded him greater opportunities to study than were available to a typical Corsican of the time. On 15 May 1779, at age nine, Napoleon was admitted to a French military school at Brienne-le-Château, a small town near Troyes. He had to learn French before entering the school, but he spoke with a marked Italian accent throughout his life and never learned to spell properly.^[5]. During his schooling years Napoleon was often teased by other students for his Corsican accent. However he ignored this criticism and buried himself in study. ^[6] Upon graduation from Brienne in 1784, Bonaparte was admitted to the elite École Royale Militaire in Paris, where he completed the two-year course of study in only one year. An examiner judged him as "very applied [to the study of] abstract sciences, little curious as to the others; [having] a thorough knowledge of mathematics and geography ..."^[7] Although he had initially sought a naval assignment, he studied artillery at the École Militaire.

Early military career

Upon graduation in September 1785, he was commissioned a second lieutenant in La Fère artillery regiment and took up his new duties in January 1786 at the age of 16.^[8] Napoleon served on garrison duty in Valence and Auxonne until after the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 (although he took nearly two years of leave in Corsica and Paris during this period). He spent most of the next several years on Corsica, where a complex three-way struggle was playing out between royalists, revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. Bonaparte supported the Jacobin faction and gained the rank of lieutenant-colonel of a regiment of volunteers. After coming into conflict with the increasingly conservative nationalist leader, Pasquale Paoli, Bonaparte and his family fled to the French mainland in June 1793.

Through the help of fellow Corsican Saliceti, Napoleon was appointed artillery commander in the French forces besieging Toulon, which had risen in revolt against the republican government and was occupied by British troops. He placed guns at Point l'Eguillete, threatening the British ships in the harbour, forcing them to evacuate. An assault, during which Bonaparte was wounded in the thigh, led to the recapture of the city and his promotion to brigadier-general. His actions brought him to the attention of the Committee of Public Safety, and he became a close associate of Augustin Robespierre, younger brother of the Revolutionary leader Maximilien Robespierre. Following the fall of the elder Robespierre he was briefly imprisoned in the Chateau d'Antibes on 6 August 1794, but was released within two weeks.

"A whiff of grapeshot"

For more details on this topic, see 13 Vendémiaire.

In 1795, Bonaparte was serving in Paris when royalists and counter-revolutionaries organized an armed protest against the National Convention on 3 October. Bonaparte was given command of the improvised forces defending the Convention in the Tuileries Palace. He seized artillery pieces with the aid of a young cavalry officer, Joachim Murat, who later became his brother-in-law. He used the artillery the following day to repel the attackers. He later boasted that he had cleared the streets with "a whiff of grapeshot," as a result of which many had died and those who had survived had fled. This triumph earned him sudden fame, wealth, and the patronage of the new Directory, particularly that of its leader, Barras. Within weeks he was romantically attached to Barras's former mistress, Josephine de Beauharnais, whom he married on 9 March 1796. (He had been engaged for two years (1794-96) to Désirée Clary, later Queen of Sweden and Norway, but the engagement was broken off by the future emperor, in the face of her parents' opposition and their concern over his lack of fortune.)

First Italian campaign

Days after his marriage, Bonaparte took command of the French "Army of Italy" on 27 March 1796, leading it on a successful invasion of Italy. At the Lodi, he gained the nickname of le petit caporal, literally "the Little Corporal." This term reflected his camaraderie with his soldiers, many of whom he knew by name, and emphasized how rarely general officers fought wars alongside their own men. He drove the Austrians out of Lombardy and defeated the army of the Papal States. Because Pope Pius VI had protested the execution of Louis XVI, France retaliated by annexing two small papal territories. Bonaparte ignored the Directory's order to march on Rome and dethrone the Pope. It was not until the next year that General Berthier captured Rome and took Pius VI prisoner on 20 February. The Pope died of illness while in captivity. In early 1797, Bonaparte led his army into Austria and forced that power to sue for peace. The resulting Treaty of Campo Formio gave France control of most of northern Italy, along with the Low Countries and Rhineland, but a secret clause promised Venice to Austria. Bonaparte then marched on Venice and forced its surrender, ending more than 1,000 years of independence. Later in 1797, Bonaparte organized many of the French-dominated territories in Italy into the Cisalpine Republic.

His remarkable series of military triumphs were a result of his ability to apply his encyclopedic knowledge of conventional military thought to real-world situations, as demonstrated by his creative use of artillery tactics, using it as a mobile force to support his infantry. As he described it: "I have fought sixty battles and I have learned nothing which I did not know at the beginning." Contemporary paintings of his headquarters during the Italian campaign depict his use of the Chappe semaphore line, first implemented in 1792. He was also a master of both intelligence and deception and had an uncanny sense of when to strike. He often won battles by concentrating his forces on an unsuspecting enemy, by using spies to gather information about opposing forces, and by concealing his own troop deployments. In this campaign, often considered his greatest, Napoleon's army captured 160,000 prisoners, 2,000 cannons, and 170 standards. A year of campaigning had witnessed major breaks with the traditional norms of 18th century warfare and marked a new era in military history.

While campaigning in Italy, General Bonaparte became increasingly influential in French politics. He published two newspapers, ostensibly for the troops in his army, but widely circulated within France as well. In May 1797 he founded a third newspaper, published in Paris, Le Journal de Bonaparte et des hommes vertueux. Elections in mid-1797 gave the royalist party increased power, alarming Barras and his allies on the Directory. The royalists, in turn, began attacking Bonaparte for looting Italy and overstepping his authority in dealings with the Austrians. Bonaparte sent General Augereau to Paris to lead a coup d'etat and purge the royalists on 4 September (18 Fructidor). This left Barras and his Republican allies in firm control again, but dependent on Bonaparte to maintain it. Bonaparte himself proceeded to the peace negotiations with Austria, then returned to Paris in December as the conquering hero and the dominant force in government, far more popular than any of the Directors. Napoleon then asked to be added to the Directory which they dismissed as out of hand; this greatly offended Napoleon.

Egyptian expedition

In March 1798, Bonaparte proposed a military expedition to seize Egypt, then a province of the Ottoman Empire, seeking to protect French trade interests and undermine Britain's access to India. The Directory, although troubled by the scope and cost of the enterprise, readily agreed to the plan in order to remove the popular general from the center of power.

In May 1798, Bonaparte was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences. His Egyptian expedition included a group of 167 scientists: mathematicians, naturalists, chemists and geodesers among them.^[9] One of their discoveries was the Rosetta Stone. This deployment of intellectual resources is considered by some an indication of Bonaparte's devotion to the principles of the Enlightenment, and by others as a masterstroke of propaganda, obfuscating the true imperialist motives of the invasion. In a largely unsuccessful effort to gain the support of the Egyptian populace, Bonaparte also issued proclamations casting himself as a liberator of the people from Ottoman oppression, and praising the precepts of Islam.

Bonaparte's expedition seized Malta from the Knights of Saint John on 9 June and then landed successfully at Alexandria on 1 July, temporarily eluding pursuit by the British Royal Navy.

After landing on the coast of Egypt, he fought The Battle of Chobrakit and Battle of the Pyramids against the Mamelukes, an old power in the Middle East, approximately four miles (6 km) from the pyramids. Bonaparte's forces were greatly outnumbered by the Mamelukes cavalry, 20,000 to 60,000,^[10] but Bonaparte formed hollow squares, keeping cannons and supplies safely on the inside. In all, 300 French and approximately 6,000 Egyptians were killed.

While the battle on land was a resounding French victory, the British Royal Navy managed to compensate at sea. The ships that had landed Bonaparte and his army sailed back to France, while a fleet of ships of the line remained to support the army along the coast. On 1 August the British fleet under Horatio Nelson fought the French in the Battle of the Nile, capturing or destroying all but two French vessels. With Bonaparte land-bound, his goal of strengthening the French position in the Mediterranean Sea was frustrated, but his army succeeded in consolidating power in Egypt, although it faced repeated uprisings.

In early 1799, he led the army into the Ottoman province of Damascus (Syria and northern Israel) and defeated numerically superior Ottoman forces in several battles, but his army was weakened by disease—mostly bubonic plague—and poor supplies. Napoleon led 13,000 French soldiers to the conquest of the coastal towns of El Arish, Gaza, Jaffa, and Haifa.

The storming of Jaffa was particularly brutal. Although the French took control of the city within a few hours after the attack began, the French soldiers bayoneted approximately 2,000 Turkish soldiers who were trying to surrender. The soldiers' ferocity then turned to the inhabitants of the town. Men, women, and children were robbed and murdered for three days, and the massacre ended with even more bloodshed, as Napoleon ordered 3,000 more Turkish prisoners executed.^[11]

After his army was weakened by the plague, Napoleon was unable to reduce the fortress of Acre, and returned to Egypt in May. In order to speed up the retreat, Bonaparte took the controversial step of killing prisoners and plague-stricken men along the way. His supporters have argued that this decision was necessary given the continuing harassment of stragglers by Ottoman forces. Back in Egypt, on 25 July, Bonaparte defeated an Ottoman amphibious invasion at Abukir.

With the Egyptian campaign stagnating, and political instability developing back home, Bonaparte left Egypt for France in August, 1799, leaving his army under General Kléber.

Ruler of France

Coup d'état of 18 Brumaire

Main articles: 18 Brumaire and French Consulate

While in Egypt, Bonaparte stayed informed on European affairs by relying on the irregular delivery of newspapers and dispatches. On 23 August 1799, he set sail for France, taking advantage of the temporary departure of British ships blockading French coastal ports. Although he was later accused of abandoning his troops, the Directory ordered his departure, as France had suffered a series of military defeats to Second Coalition forces, and a possible invasion of French territory loomed.

By the time he returned to Paris in October, a series of French victories meant an improvement in the previously precarious military situation. The Republic was bankrupt, however, and the corrupt and inefficient Directory was more unpopular than ever with the French public.

Bonaparte was approached by one of the Directors, Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, seeking his support for a coup d'état to overthrow the constitutional government. The plot included Bonaparte's brother Lucien (then serving as speaker of the Council of Five Hundred), Roger Ducos, another Director, and Talleyrand. On 9 November (18 Brumaire) and the following day, troops led by Bonaparte seized control of and dispersed the legislative councils, leaving a legislative rump to name Bonaparte, Sieyès, and Ducos as provisional Consuls to administer the government. Although Sieyès expected to dominate the new regime, he was outmaneuvered by Bonaparte, who drafted the Constitution of the Year VIII and secured his own election as First Consul. This made Bonaparte the most powerful person in France, powers that were increased by the Constitution of the Year X, which declared him First Consul for life.

Bonaparte instituted several lasting reforms, including centralized administration of the départements, higher education, a tax system, a central bank, law codes, and road and sewer systems. He negotiated the Concordat of 1801 with the Catholic Church, seeking to reconcile the mostly Catholic population with his regime. It was presented alongside the Organic Articles, which regulated public worship in France. His set of civil laws, the Napoleonic Code or Civil Code, has importance to this day in many countries. The Code was prepared by committees of legal experts under the supervision of Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès, who held the office Second Consul from 1799 to 1804; Bonaparte participated actively in the sessions of the Council of State that revised the drafts. Other codes were commissioned by Bonaparte to codify criminal and commerce law. In 1808, a Code of Criminal Instruction was published, which enacted precise rules of judicial procedure. Although by contemporary standards the code excessively favours the prosecution, when enacted it sought to protect personal freedoms and to remedy the prosecutorial abuses commonplace in European courts.

Second Italian campaign

Main article: War of the Second Coalition

In 1800, Bonaparte returned to Italy, which the Austrians had reconquered during his absence in Egypt. He and his troops crossed the Alps in spring (although he actually rode a mule,^[12] not the white charger on which David famously depicted him). While the campaign began badly, Napoleon's forces eventually routed the Austrians in June at the Battle of Marengo, leading to an armistice. Napoleon's brother Joseph, who was leading the peace negotiations in Lunéville, reported that due to British backing for Austria, Austria would not recognize France's newly gained territory. As negotiations became more and more fractious, Bonaparte gave orders to his general Moreau to strike Austria once more. Moreau led France to victory at Hohenlinden. As a result the Treaty of Lunéville was signed in February 1801, under which the French gains of the Treaty of Campo Formio were reaffirmed and increased.

Later this year, Bonaparte became President of the French Academy of Sciences and appointed Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre its Permanent Secretary.^[13]

Interlude of peace

The British signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802, which set terms for peace, including the withdrawal of British troops from several colonial territories recently occupied. The peace between France and Britain was uneasy and short-lived. The monarchies of Europe were reluctant to recognize a republic, fearing that the ideas of the revolution might be exported to them. In Britain, the brother of Louis XVI was welcomed as a state guest although officially Britain recognized France as a republic. Britain failed to evacuate Malta, as promised, and protested against France's annexation of Piedmont, and Napoleon's Act of Mediation in Switzerland (although neither of these areas was covered by the Treaty of Amiens).

In 1803 Bonaparte faced a major setback and eventual defeat when an army he sent to reconquer Haiti (Saint Domingue) and establish a base was destroyed by a combination of yellow fever and fierce resistance led by Haitian GeneralsToussaint L'Ouverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines. Facing imminent war with Britain and bankruptcy, he recognized that French possessions on the mainland of North America would now be indefensible and sold them to the United States—the Louisiana Purchase—for less than three cents per acre ($7.40/km²). The dispute over Malta ended with Britain declaring war on France in 1803 to support French royalists.

Coronation as Emperor

Main article: First French Empire

In January 1804, Bonaparte's police uncovered an assassination plot against him, ostensibly sponsored by the Bourbons. In retaliation, Bonaparte ordered the arrest of the Duc d'Enghien, in a violation of the sovereignty of Baden. After a hurried secret trial, the Duke was executed on 21 March ( It is suggested that Napoleon was sorry for the Duke's death). Bonaparte then used this incident to justify the re-creation of a hereditary monarchy in France, with himself as Emperor, on the theory that a Bourbon restoration would be impossible once the Bonapartist succession was entrenched in the constitution.

Napoleon crowned himself Emperor on 2 December 1804 at Notre Dame de Paris. Claims that he seized the crown out of the hands of Pope Pius VII during the ceremony in order to avoid subjecting himself to the authority of the pontiff are apocryphal; in fact, the coronation procedure had been agreed upon in advance. After the Imperial regalia had been blessed by the Pope, Napoleon crowned himself before crowning his wife Joséphine Empress (the moment depicted in David's famous painting, illustrated above). Then at Milan's cathedral on 26 May 1805, Napoleon was crowned King of Italy with the Iron Crown of Lombardy.

Coalitions against Napoleon

Main article: Third Coalition

In 1805 Britain convinced Austria and Russia to join a Third Coalition against Napoleon. Napoleon knew the French fleet could not defeat the Royal Navy and therefore tried to lure the British fleet away from the English Channel in hopes that a Spanish and French fleet could take control of the Channel long enough for French armies to cross to England. However, with Austria and Russia preparing an invasion of France and its allies, he had to change his plans and turn his attention to the continent. The newly formed Grande Armee secretly marched to Germany. On 20 October 1805, it surprised the Austrians at Ulm. The next day, however, with the Battle of Trafalgar (21 October 1805), the Royal Navy gained lasting control of the seas. A few weeks later, Napoleon defeated Austria and Russia at Austerlitz (a decisive victory for which he remained more proud than any other) on 2 December, the first anniversary of his coronation. Again Austria had to sue for peace.

Main article: Fourth Coalition

The Fourth Coalition was assembled the following year, and Napoleon defeated Prussia at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt (14 October 1806). He marched on against advancing Russian armies through Poland, and was involved at the bloody stalemate of the Battle of Eylau on 6 February 1807. After a decisive victory at Friedland, he signed a treaty at Tilsit in East Prussia with Tsar Alexander I of Russia, dividing Europe between the two powers. He placed puppet rulers on the thrones of German states, including his brother Jerome as king of the new state of Westphalia. In the French-controlled part of Poland, he established the Duchy of Warsaw, with King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony as ruler. Between 1809 and 1813, Napoleon also served as Regent of the Grand Duchy of Berg for his brother Louis Bonaparte.

In addition to military endeavours against Britain, Napoleon also waged economic war, attempting to enforce a Europe-wide commercial boycott of Britain called the "Continental System". Although this action hurt the British economy, it also damaged the French economy and was not a decisive blow against the enemy.

Main article: Peninsular War

Portugal did not comply with the Continental System and in 1807 Napoleon invaded Portugal with the support of Spain. Under the pretext of reinforcing the Franco-Spanish army occupying Portugal, Napoleon invaded Spain as well, replacing Charles IV with his brother Joseph, placing brother-in-law Joachim Murat in Joseph's stead at Naples. This led to unexpected resistance from the Spanish army and civilians. Following a French retreat from much of the country, Napoleon himself took command and defeated the Spanish army, retook Madrid and then outmaneuvered a British army sent to support the Spanish, driving it to the coast. But before the Spanish population had been fully subdued, Austria again threatened war and Napoleon returned to France. The costly and often brutal Peninsular War continued, and Napoleon left several hundred thousand of his finest troops to battle Spanish guerrillas as well as British and Portuguese forces commanded by the Duke of Wellington. French control over the Iberian Peninsula deteriorated in 1812, and collapsed the following year when Joseph abdicated his throne. The last French troops were driven from the peninsula in 1814.

Gold 20 Franc Coin of Napoleon I, struck 1808
Known as Napoleon Gold, the French began to simply call these coins, "Napoleons." Obverse: (French) NAPOLEON EMPEREUR, or in English, "Napoleon, Emperor""	Reverse: (French) REPUBLIQUE FRANÇAISE, 1808, 20 FRANCS, or in English, "French Republic, 1808, 20 Francs."

Main article: Fifth Coalition

In 1809, Austria abruptly broke its alliance with France and Napoleon was forced to assume command of forces on the Danube and German fronts. After achieving early successes, the French faced difficulties crossing the Danube and then suffered a defeat at Aspern-Essling (21–22 May 1809) near Vienna. The Austrians failed to capitalise on the situation and allowed Napoleon's forces to regroup. The Austrians were defeated once again at Wagram (6 July), and a new peace was signed between Austria and France. In the following year the Austrian Archduchess Marie Louise married Napoleon, following his divorce of Josephine.

The other member of the coalition was Britain. Along with efforts in the Iberian Peninsula, the British planned to open another front in mainland Europe. However, by the time the British landed at Walcheren, Austria had already sued for peace. The expedition was a disaster and was characterized by little fighting but many casualties thanks to the popularly dubbed "Walcheren Fever".

Invasion of Russia

Main article: French invasion of Russia

Although the Congress of Erfurt had sought to preserve the Russo-French alliance, by 1811 tensions were again increasing between the two nations. Although Alexander and Napoleon had a friendly personal relationship since their first meeting in 1807, Alexander had been under strong pressure from the Russian aristocracy to break off the alliance with France. In order to keep other countries from revolting against France, Napoleon decided to make an example of Russia.

The first sign that the alliance was deteriorating was the easing of the application of the Continental System in Russia, angering Napoleon. By 1812, advisors to Alexander suggested the possibility of an invasion of the French Empire and the recapture of Poland.

Russia deployed large numbers of troops to the Polish borders, eventually placing there more than 300,000 of its total army strength of 410,000. After receiving initial reports of Russia's war preparations, Napoleon began expanding his Grande Armée to more than 450,000–600,000 men (in addition to more than 300,000 men already deployed in Iberia). Napoleon ignored repeated advice against an invasion of the vast Russian heartland, and prepared for an offensive campaign.

On 22 June 1812, Napoleon's invasion of Russia commenced. In an attempt to gain increased support from Polish nationalists and patriots, Napoleon termed the war the "Second Polish War" (the first Polish war being the liberation of Poland from Russia, Prussia and Austria). Polish patriots wanted the Russian part of partitioned Poland to be incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and a new Kingdom of Poland created, although this was rejected by Napoleon, who feared it would bring Prussia and Austria into the war against France. Napoleon also rejected requests to free the Russian serfs, fearing this might provoke a conservative reaction in his rear.

French Monarchy -
Bonaparte Dynasty

Napoleon I Children    Napoleon II Siblings    Napoleone    Maria Anna    Joseph, King of Spain    Lucien, Prince of Canino    Elisa, Grand Duchess of Tuscany    Louis, King of Holland    Pauline, Princess of Guastalla    Caroline, Queen of Naples    Jérôme, King of Westphalia Nephews and nieces    Princess Julie    Princess Zénaïde    Princess Charlotte    Prince Charles    Prince Louis    Prince Pierre    Prince Napoleon Charles    Prince Napoleon Louis    Napoleon III    Prince Jérôme    Prince Napoleon Joseph    Princess Mathilde Grandnephews and -nieces    Prince Joseph    Prince Lucien-Louis    Prince Roland    Princess Jeanne    Prince Charles    Prince Jerome    Napoleon (V) Victor Great Grandnephews and -nieces    Princess Marie    Princess Marie Clotilde    Napoleon (VI) Louis Great Great Grandnephews and -nieces    Napoleon (VII) Charles    Princess Catherine    Princess Laure    Prince Jerome Great Great Great Grandnephews and -nieces    Princess Caroline    Prince Jean-Christophe Napoleon II Napoleon III Children    Napoleon (IV), Prince Imperial

The Russians under Mikhail Bogdanovich Barclay de Tolly avoided a decisive engagement which Napoleon longed for, preferring to retreat ever deeper into the heart of Russia. A brief attempt at resistance was offered at Smolensk (16–17 August), but the Russians were defeated in a series of battles in the area and Napoleon resumed the advance. The Russians then repeatedly avoided battle with the Grande Armée, although in a few cases only because Napoleon uncharacteristically hesitated to attack when the opportunity arose. Thanks to the Russian army's scorched earth tactics, the Grande Armée had more and more trouble foraging food for its men and horses.^[14][15] Along with hunger, the French also suffered from the harsh Russian winter.

Barclay was criticized for his tentative strategy of continual retreat and was replaced by Kutuzov. However, Kutuzov continued Barclay's strategy. Kutuzov eventually offered battle outside Moscow on 7 September. Losses were nearly even for both armies, with slightly more casualties on the Russian side, after what may have been the bloodiest day of battle in history: the Battle of Borodino (see article for comparisons to the first day of the Battle of the Somme). Although Napoleon was far from defeated, the Russian army had accepted, and withstood, the major battle the French hoped would be decisive. After the battle, the Russian army withdrew and retreated past Moscow.

Napoleon then entered Moscow, assuming that the fall of Moscow would end the war and that Alexander I would negotiate peace. However, on orders of the city's military governor and commander-in-chief, Fyodor Rostopchin, rather than capitulating, Moscow was ordered burned. Within the month, fearing loss of control back in France, Napoleon left Moscow.

The French suffered greatly in the course of a ruinous retreat; the Army had begun as over 650,000 frontline troops, but in the end fewer than 40,000 crossed the Berezina River (November 1812) to escape. The strategy employed by Barclay and Kutuzov had worn down the invaders and maintained the Tsar's domination over the Russian people. In total, French losses in the campaign were 570,000 against about 400,000 Russian casualties and several hundred thousand civilian deaths.

One American study concluded that the winter only had a major effect once Napoleon was in full retreat:

"However, in regard to the claims of "General Winter," the main body of Napoleon's Grande Armée diminished by half during the first eight weeks of his invasion before the major battle of the campaign. This decrease was partly due to garrisoning supply centres, but disease, desertions, and casualties sustained in various minor actions caused thousands of losses. At Borodino on 7 September 1812 — the only major engagement fought in Russia — Napoleon could muster no more than 135,000 troops, and he lost at least 30,000 of them to gain a narrow and Pyrrhic victory almost 600 miles (970 km) deep in hostile territory. The sequels were his uncontested and self-defeating occupation of Moscow and his humiliating retreat, which began on 19 October, before the first severe frosts later that month and the first snow on 5 November." ^[16]

Defeat and exile

Main article: Sixth Coalition

There was a lull in fighting over the winter of 1812–13 while both the Russians and the French recovered from their massive losses. A small Russian army harassed the French in Poland and eventually 30,000 French troops there withdrew to the German states to rejoin the expanding force there — numbering 130,000 with the reinforcements from Poland. This force continued to expand, with Napoleon aiming for a force of 400,000 French troops supported by a quarter of a million German troops.

Heartened by Napoleon's losses in Russia, Prussia rejoined the Coalition that now included Russia, the United Kingdom, Spain, and Portugal. Napoleon assumed command in Germany and inflicted a series of defeats on the Allies culminating in the Battle of Dresden on 26–27 August 1813 causing almost 100,000 casualties to the Coalition forces (the French sustaining only around 30,000).

Despite these initial successes, the numbers continued to mount against Napoleon as Sweden and Austria joined the Coalition. Eventually the French army was pinned down by a force twice its size at the Battle of Nations (16–19 October) at Leipzig. Some of the German states switched sides in the midst of the battle to fight against France. This was by far the largest battle of the Napoleonic Wars and cost both sides a total of more than 120,000 casualties.

After this Napoleon withdrew in an orderly fashion back into France. His army was now reduced to less than 100,000 against more than half a million Allied troops. The French were now surrounded (with British armies pressing from the south in addition to the Coalition forces moving in from the German states) and vastly outnumbered.

On April 6, 1813, Napoleon abdicated in favor of his son, but the allies refused to accept this. Paris was occupied on 31 March 1814. Napoleon proposed that they march on Paris. His soldiers and regimental officers were eager to fight on. But his marshals mutinied. On April 4, Napoleon's marshals, led by Ney, confronted him. They said that they refused to march. Napoleon asserted that the army would follow him. Ney replied that the army would follow its generals. The Allies were still not satisfied with original abdication and demanded unconditional surrender. Napoleon abdicated again, unconditionally, on 11 April; however, they allowed him to retain his title of Emperor. In the Treaty of Fontainebleau the victors exiled him to Elba, a small island in the Mediterranean 20 km off the coast of Italy. After his abdication Napoleon attempted to commit suicide by taking poison from a vial he had always carried. However, the poison had weakened with age and he survived to be deported to Elba.^[17]

In his exile, he ran Elba as a little country; he created a tiny navy and army, opened some mines, and helped farmers improve their land. However, he became restless.^{[citation needed]}

The Hundred Days

Main article: Hundred Days

In France, the royalists had taken over and restored Louis XVIII to power. Meanwhile Napoleon, separated from his wife and son (who had come under Austrian control), cut off from the allowance guaranteed to him by the Treaty of Fontainebleau, and aware of rumours that he was about to be banished to a remote island in the Atlantic, escaped from Elba on 26 February 1815 and returned to the French mainland on 1 March 1815. Louis XVIII sent the 5th Regiment of the Line, led by Marshal Ney who had formerly served under Napoleon in Russia, to meet him at Grenoble on 7 March 1815. Napoleon approached the regiment alone, dismounted his horse and, when he was within earshot of Ney's forces, shouted, "Soldiers of the Fifth, you recognize me. If any man would shoot his emperor, he may do so now." Following a brief silence, the soldiers shouted, "Vive L'Empereur!" With that, they marched with Napoleon to Paris. He arrived on 20 March, quickly raising a regular army of 140,000 and a volunteer force of around 200,000, and governed for a period now called the Hundred Days.

For much of his public life, Napoleon was troubled by ill health, including haemorrhoids, which made sitting on a horse for long periods of time difficult and painful. This condition would have disastrous results when he fought at Waterloo; during the battle, his inability to sit on his horse for other than very short periods of time interfered with his ability to survey, and thus exercise command of, his troops in combat^[18]. Napoleon was finally defeated by the Duke of Wellington and Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher at Waterloo in present-day Belgium on 18 June 1815.

Off the port of Rochefort, after considering an escape to the United States, Napoléon made his formal surrender to Captain Frederick Maitland of HMS Bellerophon on 15 July 1815.

Exile and death on Saint Helena

Napoleon was imprisoned and then exiled by the British to the island of Saint Helena (2,800 km off the Bight of Guinea in the South Atlantic Ocean) from 15 October 1815. Before Napoleon moved to Longwood House in November 1815, he lived in a pavilion on the estate The Briars belonging to William Balcombe (1779-1829), and became friendly with the family, especially the younger daughter Lucia Elizabeth (Betsy) who later wrote Recollections of the Emperor Napoleon (London, 1844). This relationship ended in March 1818 when Balcombe was accused of acting as an intermediary between Napoleon and Paris.^[19]

Whilst there, with a small cadre of followers, he dictated his memoirs, and criticized his captors. There were several plots to rescue Napoleon from captivity, including one from Brazil and another from Texas, where some four hundred exiled soldiers from the Grand Army dreamed of a resurrection of the Napoleonic Empire in America. There was even a plan to rescue him using a submarine.^[20]

The question of the British treatment of Napoleon is a matter of some dispute. Certainly his accommodation was poorly built, and the location was damp, windswept and generally considered unhealthy. The paranoia, tactlessness and often petty-minded behaviour of Hudson Lowe also exacerbated what was bound to be a difficult situation. At the same time Napoleon and his entourage never accepted the legality or justice of his captivity, and the slights they received tended to be magnified. In the early years of the captivity Napoleon received many visitors, to the anger and consternation of the French minister Richelieu, who said, "this devil of a man exercises an astonishing seduction on all those who approach him."^{[citation needed]} From 1818 however, as the restrictions placed on him were increased, he lived the life of a recluse.

In Britain, Napoleon came to be transformed in the public mind from a monster to a hero^{[citation needed]}, no doubt a direct expression of discontent at the reactionary post-war government of Lord Liverpool^{[citation needed]}. In 1818 The Times, which Napoleon received in exile, in reporting a false rumour of his escape, said that this had been greeted by spontaneous illuminations in London. There was some sympathy for him also in the political opposition in Parliament. Lord Holland, the nephew of Charles James Fox, the former Whig leader, sent more than 1,000 books and pamphlets to Longwood, as well as jam and other comforts. Holland also accused the government of attempting to kill the Emperor by a process of slow assassination. Napoleon knew of this^{[citation needed]}, and based his hopes for release on the possibility of Holland becoming Prime Minister, which was Richelieu's greatest fear.

Napoleon also enjoyed the support of Admiral Lord Cochrane, one of the greatest sailors of the age, closely involved in Chile and Brazil's struggle for independence. It was his expressed aim to make him Emperor of a unified South American state, a scheme that was frustrated by Napoleon's death in 1821. For Lord Byron, amongst others, Napoleon was the very epitome of the Romantic hero, the persecuted, lonely and flawed genius. At quite the other extreme, the news that Napoleon had taken up gardening at Longwood appealed to more domestic British sensibilities, which had the effect of humanising him still further.

The nature of Napoleon's personal religious faith has come to be a frequent topic of debate. Not long after Napoleon’s death, in a lecture before Oxford University, Henry Parry Liddon asserted that Napoleon, while in exile on St. Helena, compared himself unfavorably to Jesus Christ. According to Liddon's sources, Napoleon pointed out to Count Montholon that while he and others such as "Alexander, Caesar [and] Charlemagne" founded vast empires, their achievements relied on force, while Jesus "founded his empire on love." After further discourse about the wonders of Christ and his legacy, Napoleon then reputedly said, "This it is which proves to me quite convincingly the Divinity of Jesus Christ."^[21]

An earlier quotation attributed to Napoleon suggests there had been a time he may have also been an admirer of Islam:

I hope the time is not far off when I shall be able to unite all the wise and educated men of all the countries and establish a uniform regime based on the principles of Qur'an which alone are true and which alone can lead men to happiness.^[22]

However, Napoleon's private secretary during his conquest of Egypt, Louis Antoine Fauvelet de Bourrienne, wrote in his memoirs that Napoleon had no serious interest in Islam or any other religion beyond their political value:

Bonaparte's principle was, as he himself has often told me, to look upon religions as the work of men, but to respect them everywhere as a powerful engine of government. However, I will not go so far as to say that he would not have changed his religion had the conquest of the East been the price of that change. All that he said about Mahomet, Islamism, and the Koran to the great men of the country he laughed at himself... I confess that Bonaparte frequently conversed with the chiefs of the Mussulman religion on the subject of his conversion; but only for the sake of amusement.... If Bonaparte spoke as a Mussulman, it was merely in his character of a military and political chief in a Mussulman country. To do so was essential to his success, to the safety of his army, and, consequently, to his glory. In every country he would have drawn up proclamations and delivered addresses on the same principle. In India he would have been for Ali, at Thibet for the Dalai-lama, and in China for Confucius.^[23]

Napoleon died reconciled to the Catholic Church, having confessed his sins and received Extreme Unction and Viaticum at the hands of Father Ange Vignali on May 5, 1821.^[24]

Napoleon had asked in his will to be buried on the banks of the Seine, but was buried on Saint Helena, in the "valley of the willows". He was buried in an unmarked tomb, because Sir Hudson Lowe refused to allow the simple inscription Napoleon to be placed on it, insisting that the word Bonaparte must also be there. In 1840 his remains were taken to France in the frigate Belle-Poule and were to be entombed in a porphyry sarcophagus at Les Invalides, Paris. Egyptian porphyry (used for the tombs of Roman emperors) was unavailable, so red quartzite was obtained from Russian Finland, eliciting protests from those who still remembered the Russians as enemies. Hundreds of millions have visited his tomb since that date. A replica of his simple Saint Helena tomb is also to be found at Les Invalides.

Cause of death

The cause of Napoleon's death has been disputed on a number of occasions. Francesco Antommarchi, the physician chosen by Napoleon's family and the leader of the post mortem examination,^[25] gave stomach cancer as a reason for Napoleon's death on his death certificate. In the latter half of the twentieth century, a different theory arose conjecturing that Napoleon was the victim of arsenic poisoning.

Arsenic poisoning theory

In 1955 the diaries of Louis Marchand, Napoleon's valet, appeared in print. His description of Napoleon in the months before his death led many, most notably Sten Forshufvud and Ben Weider, to conclude that he had been indirectly killed by arsenic poisoning. Arsenic was sometimes used as a poison because at that time it was undetectable when administered over a long period. As Napoleon's body was found to be remarkably well preserved when it was moved in 1840, it gives support to the arsenic theory, as arsenic is a strong preservative. In 2001, Pascal Kintz, of the Strasbourg Forensic Institute in France, added credence to this claim with a study of arsenic levels found in a lock of Napoleon's hair preserved after his death: they were seven to 38 times higher than normal.^[26][27] Recent application of nano-SIMS technology showed that authenticated hairs of Napoleon contained inorganic arsenic, of the type commonly known as "rat poison", in the inner layer, or medulla, of the hair shaft.^{[28] [29]}

Cutting up hairs into short segments and analysing each segment individually provides a histogram of arsenic concentration in the body. This analysis on hair from Napoléon suggests that large but non-lethal doses were absorbed at random intervals. The arsenic severely weakened Napoléon and remained in his system.^{[citation needed]}

The medical regimen imposed on Napoleon by his doctors included treatment with antimony potassium tartrate, also called tartar emetic, regular enemas, and a 600-milligram dose of mercurous chloride, also called calomel, to purge his intestines in the days immediately prior to his death. A group of researchers from the San Francisco Medical Examiner's Department speculate that this treatment may have led to Napoleon's death by causing a serious potassium deficiency.^[30] Forshufvud and Weider noted that this was coupled with high levels of orgeat that Napoleon was drinking, to attempt to quench abnormally high thirst of which he was complaining, at the time; the bitter almonds used to flavor orgeat contained cyanide compounds which, Forshufvud and Weider maintained, the frequent doses of tartar emetic were preventing Napoleon's stomach from expelling by vomiting. They remarked that the thirst of which Napoleon complained was also a possible symptom of slow chronic arsenic poisoning, and added that the dosage of calomel given to Napoleon was essentially a massive overdose. They said that it caused almost immediate corrosion and bleeding of his stomach, killing him within two days and leaving behind extensive tissue damage. Not having looked for aftereffects of arsenic poisoning, they noted, the doctors who performed the autopsy (except for Antommarchi, the only pathologist present) could easily have mistaken this tissue damage for aftereffects of cancer.

More recent analysis on behalf of the magazine Science et Vie showed that similar concentrations of arsenic can be found in Napoleon's hair in samples taken from 1805, 1814 and 1821. The lead investigator, Ivan Ricordel (head of toxicology for the Paris Police), stated that if arsenic had been the cause, Napoléon would have died years earlier. The group suggested that the most likely source in this case was a hair tonic. However, the group did not address the irregular arsenic absorption patterns revealed by the analysis commissioned by Forshufvud.

It has also been discovered that the form of wallpaper used in Napoléon's house contained a high level of arsenic which, when made in a compound with copper, was used by British textile makers to make the greens present in the wallpaper. It has been said that the adhesive, which in the cooler environment of Britain was innocuous, grew mold and turned the copper-arsenic compound into the poisonous gas arsine in the humid climate of Longwood House.^[31] But, as above, this analysis also fails to explain the irregular arsenic absorption patterns revealed in the analysis that Forshufvud had commissioned. Also the original propnent of the wallpaper theory, Dr David Jones, never claimed that concentration levels of arsine would actually lead to the death of Napoleon.

In a 2008 study researchers analyzed samples of Napoleon's hair throughout his life, and also samples from his son and wife as well as other contemporaries. Through neutron activation analysis they found that all the samples had high levels of arsenic, approximately 100 times higher than the current average.^[32] According to the researchers, Napoleon's body was already heavily contaminated with arsenic as a boy,^[32] concluding that the high arsenic concentration in Napoleon's hair was not due to poisoning. During his life he was constantly exposed to arsenic^[33] from materials such as commonly-used glues and dyes of the era.^[32]

Stomach cancer theory

In May 2005, a team of Swiss physicians^{[citation needed]} claimed that the reason for Napoleon's death was stomach cancer, which was also the cause of his father's death. From a multitude of forensic reports they^{[citation needed]} derive that Napoleon at his death weighed approx. 76 kg (168 lb) while a year earlier he weighed approx. 91 kg (200 lb), confirming the autopsy result reported by Antommarchi.

In October 2005, a document was unearthed in Scotland that presented an account of the autopsy, which again seems to confirm Antommarchi's conclusion.^[34] More recent analysis of the etiology and pathogenesis of Napoleon's illness also suggests that Napoleon's illness was a sporadic gastric carcinoma of advanced stage.^[35] The original post-mortem examination carried out by Francesco Antommarchi concluded Napoleon died of stomach cancer without knowing Napoleon’s father had died of stomach cancer.^[36] An extensive 2007 study found no evidence of arsenic poisoning in the organs, such as hem­or­rhag­ing in the lin­ing in­side the heart, and also concluded that stomach cancer was the cause of death.^[37][38][39]

But none of these claims adequately convinced those who believed that Napoleon had died as an indirect result of arsenic poisoning, since cancers are "wasting" diseases that emaciate their victims as they progress whereas Napoleon was reported to have grown progressively fatter almost to the end; obesity has been observed in slow chronic arsenic poisoning victims.

Marriages and children

Napoleon was married twice:

• 9 March 1796 to Joséphine de Beauharnais. He formally adopted her son Eugène and cousin Stéphanie after assuming the throne to arrange "dynastic" marriages for them. He had her daughter Hortense marry his brother, Louis. Napoleon's and Joséphine's marriage was unconventional, and both were known to have many affairs. Joséphine agreed to divorce so he could remarry in the hopes of producing an heir. Napoleon's letters to Joséphine available in the original French on the French wikisource site. ^[40]
• 11 March 1810 by proxy to Marie Louise, Archduchess of Austria, then in a ceremony on 1 April. They remained married until his death, although she did not join him in his exile.
  • Napoleon Francis Joseph Charles (20 March 1811 – 22 July 1832), King of Rome. Known as Napoleon II though he reigned (in name only) for just two weeks. Was later known as the Duke of Reichstadt. He had no issue.

Acknowledged two illegitimate children, both of whom had issue:

• Charles, Count Léon, (1806 – 1881), by Louise Catherine Eléonore Denuelle de la Plaigne (1787 – 1868).
• Alexandre Joseph Colonna, Count Walewski, (4 May 1810 – 27 October 1868), by Marie, Countess Walewski (1789 – 1817).

May have had further illegitimate offspring:

• Émilie Louise Marie Françoise Joséphine Pellapra, by Françoise-Marie LeRoy.
• Karl Eugin von Mühlfeld, by Victoria Kraus.
• Hélène Napoleone Bonaparte, by Countess Montholon.
• Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire (19 August 1805 – 24 November 1895) whose mother remains unknown.

Legacy

Napoleon's true legacy is highly controversial. Some see him as a great example of politician, following the doctrines of Machiavelli, led by ambitions for happiness of his people.

Napoleon is credited with introducing the concept of the modern professional conscript army to Europe, an innovation which other states eventually followed. He did not introduce many new concepts into the French military system, borrowing mostly from previous theorists and the implementations of preceding French governments, but he did expand or develop much of what was already in place. Corps replaced divisions as the largest army units, artillery was integrated into reserve batteries, the staff system became more fluid, and cavalry once again became a crucial formation in French military doctrine.

Napoleon's biggest influence in the military sphere was in the conduct of warfare. Weapons and technology remained largely static through the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras, but 18th century operational strategy underwent massive restructuring. Sieges became infrequent to the point of near-irrelevance, and a new emphasis towards the destruction, not just outmaneuvering, of enemy armies emerged. Invasions of enemy territory occurred over broader fronts, thus introducing a plethora of strategic opportunities that made wars costlier and, just as importantly, more decisive (this strategy has since become known as Napoleonic warfare, though he himself did not give it this name). Defeat for a European power now meant much more than losing isolated enclaves; near-Carthaginian peaces intertwined whole national efforts — sociopolitical, economic, and militaristic — into gargantuan collisions that severely upset international conventions. It can be argued that Napoleon's initial success sowed the seeds for his downfall. Not used to such catastrophic defeats in the rigid power system of 18th century Europe, many nations found life under the French yoke intolerable, sparking revolts, wars, and general instability that plagued the continent until 1815.

In France, Napoleon is seen by some as having ended lawlessness and disorder, and the wars he fought as having served to export the Revolution to the rest of Europe. The movements of national unification and the rise of the nation state, notably in Italy and Germany, may have been precipitated by the Napoleonic rule of those areas.

The Napoleonic Code was adopted throughout much of Europe and remained in force after Napoleon's defeat. Napoleon himself once said: "My true glory is not to have won 40 battles... Waterloo will erase the memory of so many victories. ... But what nothing will destroy, what will live forever, is my Civil Code." Professor Dieter Langewiesche of the University of Tübingen described the code as a "revolutionary project" which spurred the development of bourgeois society in Germany by expanding the right to own property and breaking the back of feudalism. Langewiesche also credits Napoleon with reorganizing what had been the Holy Roman Empire, made up of more than 1,000 entities, into a more streamlined network of 40 states, providing the basis for the German Confederation and the future unification of Germany under the German Empire in 1871.

Critics of Napoleon argue that his true legacy was a loss of status for France and many needless deaths:

After all, the military record is unquestioned—17 years of wars, perhaps six million Europeans dead, France bankrupt, her overseas colonies lost. And it was all such a great waste, for when the self-proclaimed tête d'armée was done, France's "losses were permanent" and she "began to slip from her position as the leading power in Europe to second-class status—that was Bonaparte's true legacy."^[41]

Napoleon is often alleged to have been a direct inspiration for later autocrats: he never flinched when facing the prospect of war and death for thousands, friend or foe, and turned his search of undisputed rule into a continuous cycle of conflict throughout Europe, ignoring treaties and conventions alike. Napoleon institutionalized systematic plunder and looting of conquered territories. To this day, French museums contain art systematically stolen by Napoleon's forces from across Europe and brought to the Louvre in Paris for a grand central Museum; his example would later serve as inspiration for more notorious imitators.^[42][43] Even if other European powers continually offered Napoleon terms that would have restored France's borders to situations only dreamt by the Bourbon kings, he always refused compromise, and only accepted surrender.

Living at the end of the Enlightenment, Napoleon also became notorious for his effort to suppress the slave revolt in Haiti and his 1801 decision to re-establish slavery in France after it was banned following the revolution.^[44]

Nevertheless, many in the international community still admire the many accomplishments of the emperor as evidenced by the International Napoleonic Congress held in Dinard, France in July 2005 that included participation by members of the French and American military, French politicians, scholars from as far away as Israel and Russia, and a parade recreating the Grand Army. Napoleon was in many ways close to historical figures like Alexander or Caesar, and it is one of the reasons for the vivacity and strength of his legacy.

Napoleon was hated by his many enemies, but respected by them at the same time. Wellington, when asked who he thought was the greatest general of the day, answered: "In this age, in past ages, in any age, Napoleon." By his opponents within France, mostly monarchist loyalists as well as republicans, he was considered an usurper and tyrant.

In military school at Brienne-le-Château, Bonaparte first met the Champagne maker Jean-Remy Moët. The friendship of these two men would have lasting impact on the history of the Champagne region and on the beverage itself.^[45]

Napoleon's height

British propaganda of the time depicted Napoleon as of smaller than average height (see contemporary caricature right) and the image of him as a small man persists in modern Britain in a way that does not exist in France. Uncertainty arises, however, because the French inch of the time equalled 2.71 centimetres, while the Imperial inch is 2.54 centimeters.^[46] Napoleon's height was put at around 5 ft 2 ins by three French sources (his valet Constant, General Gourgaud,[6] and Francesco Antommarchi at Napoleon's autopsy) which on the French scale equals around 1.68 meters. By contrast, two English sources (Andrew Darling and John Foster[7]) put his height at around 5 ft 7 ins, equivalent, on the Imperial scale, to about 1.70 meters. This would have made him slightly taller than the average Frenchman of the time.^[47]

Nonetheless, some historians have claimed that Napoleon would have been measured with a British measure at his autopsy, since he was under British control at St Helena, implying that the 5 ft 2 ins is an Imperial measure, equal to about 1.57 meters.^[48] On the other hand, it might be countered that Francesco Antommarchi, Napoleon's personal physician, despised the English, considered their touch "polluting," ^[49] and would never have used their yardstick to measure his emperor. No evidence on which scale was used for this official measurement has come to light and, nearly 200 years after the event, the chances of definitive proof one way or the other are remote.

Napoleon's nickname of le petit caporal may add to the confusion, as non-Francophones may mistakenly interpret petit by its literal meaning of "small"; in fact, it is an affectionate term reflecting on his camaraderie with ordinary soldiers (for example, petit ami means "boyfriend" in French, petite amie means "girlfriend," and mon petit chou ["my little cabbage"] is a term of affection). He also surrounded himself with the soldiers of his elite guard, who were usually six feet or taller.

Whether truly short or not, Napoleon lent his name to the Napoleon complex, a colloquial term describing an alleged type of inferiority complex which is said to affect some people who are physically short. The term is used more generally to describe people who are driven by a perceived handicap to overcompensate in other aspects of their lives. In Napoleon's case, it supposedly compelled him to perform acts of conquest and megalomania.

Films

• Napoleon (1918) Louis Feuillade - France/black&white/silent
• Napoleon (1920) Bud Fisher - USA/Animation/short
• Napoleon (1927) Albert Dieudonné - France/black&white/epic silent Abel Gance
• Napoleon (1955) Sacha Guitry - France/color/with Orson Welles, Raymond Pellegrin
• War and Peace (1956) Herbert Lom - USA/Italian production Dino De Laurentiis, King Vidor
• Austerlitz (1960) Pierre Mondy - Abel Gance
• War and Peace (1968) - Soviet film, Sergei Bondarchuk
• Waterloo (1970) Rod Steiger - Dino De Laurentiis/Sergei Bondarchuk, Soviet-Italian production
• Napoleon & Josephine (1987) Armand Assante- USA miniseries on ABC
• Napóleon (1989) Péter Rudolf - Hungarian TV movie
• Napoléon et l'Europe (1991) Jean-François Stévenin - French TV series
• Napoleon (2002) Christian Clavier - A&E miniseries based on series of books by Max Gallo, directed by Yves Simoneau
• Monsieur N (2003) Philippe Torreton

Stanley Kubrick worked all his life on a film project about Napoleon. He never made it and put all his research efforts into the Academy award-winning film Barry Lyndon.

See also

• Bonapartism
• First French Empire
• Napoleonic weaponry and warfare
• Napoleon complex
• Napoleonic Code
• Napoleonic Era
• Napoleonic medal
• Napoleonic Wars
• Marshal of France, for a list of Napoleon's Marshals
• Napoleon and the Jews
• Napoleon in popular culture
• Napoleon's theorem
• Napoleon I of France bibliography
• Plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaise, an assassination attempt
• The Crime of Napoleon
• Description de l'Egypte (1809)

Notes

References

• Bonaparte (Napoléon Ier). Insecula: L'encyclopedie des artes et de l'architecture. Retrieved on 25 September 2003.
• Napoleon. Napoleon Series. Retrieved on 2 April 2004.
• Napoleon I of France. France.com. Retrieved on 20 February 2005.
• (CSI). CSI studies. Retrieved on 31 March 2006.
• Asprey, Robert (2000). The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-04879-X. 
• Chandler, D. G. Napoleon. Leo Cooper, 2002. ISBN 0-85052-750-3.
• Connelly, O. Blundering to Glory: Napoleon’s Military Campaigns. Rowman & Littlefield Pub., 2006. 3rd ed.
• Cronin, Vincent (1994). Napoleon. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-637521-9. 
• Durant, Will and Durant, Ariel (1975). The Age of Napoleon. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-671-21988-X (PT. 11). 
• A. Gautier, Un drogman à Sainte-Hélène, le baron Barthélémi de Stürmer (1787–1863), Le Bulletin, Association des anciens élèves, Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales (INALCO)(National Institute of Languages and Oriental Civilizations), October 2003, pp. 39–48.
• McLynn, Frank (1998). Napoleon: A Biography. London: Pimlico. ISBN 0-7126-6247-2. 
• Hazareesingh, Sudhir. Legend of Napoleon. London: Granta Books, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 1-86207-667-7); 2005 (paperback, ISBN 1-86207-789-4)
• Pope, Stephen (1999). The Cassel Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars. Cassel. ISBN 0-304-35229-2. 
• Rothenberg, Gunther Erich. The Napoleonic Wars. London: Cassell. ISBN 0-304-35983-1. 
• Schom, Alan (1998). Napoleon Bonaparte: A Life. Perennial. ISBN 0-06-092958-8. 
• Smith, Digby (1998). The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book. Greenhill Books. 
• Wilson-Smith, Timothy (2002). Napoleon: Man of War, Man of Peace. Carroll & Graf. ISBN 0-786-71089-6. 
• Zamoyski, Adam (2004). 1812: Napoleon's Fatal March on Moscow. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-718489-1. 

Further reading

• The constitution of the Consulate (in French)
• The Imperial Constitution (in French)
• Memoirs of Napoleon, available at Project Gutenberg.
• The Life of Napoleon I, available at Project Gutenberg.
• The History of Napoleon Buonaparte, available at Project Gutenberg.

External links

• Napoleon 101, a podcast about Napoleon by award-winning author J. David Markham
• Napoleon: An Intimate Portrait Traveling Exhibit
• Napoleon I Chronology in World History Database
• Napoleon, Detailed biography of Napoleon at PBS
• The Napoleon Series, Acknowledging the extraordinary talents of the man who defined an age (1789–1821) and the remarkable men and women who peopled and shaped it, the Napoleon Series seeks to promote the continued, scholarly exploration of that age.
• Scientists prove Napoleon not poisoned

Organizations studying Napoleon

• The Napoleonic Society of America - Society founded in 1983 to inform and provide its members with the means to share its knowledge and views about Napoleon and the Napoleonic Empire
• International Napoleonic Society - "The purpose of the International Napoleonic Society is to promote the study of the Napoleonic Era in accordance with proper academic standards"

Emperor Napoleon I of France House of Bonaparte Born: 15 August 1769 Died: 5 May 1821
Political offices
Preceded by French Directory	Provisional Consul of France 11 November – 12 December 1799 Served alongside: Roger Ducos, Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès	became Consul
New title Consulate created	First Consul of France 12 December 1799 – 18 May 1804 Served alongside: Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès (Second Consul), Charles-François Lebrun (Third Consul)	became Emperor
Regnal titles
Vacant French Revolution Title last held by Louis XVI as King of the French	Emperor of the French 18 May 1804 – 6 April 1814	Succeeded by Louis XVIII as King of France and Navarre
Preceded by Francis II	King of Italy 26 May 1805 – 1814	Vacant Title next held by Vittorio Emanuele II
Preceded by Louis XVIII as King of France and Navarre	Emperor of the French 1 March – 22 June 1815	Succeeded by Napoléon II
New title State created	Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine 12 July 1806 – 19 October 1813	Rhine Confederation dissolved successive ruler: Francis I, Emperor of Austria as President of the German Confederation
Titles in pretence
New title	— TITULAR — Emperor of the French 6 April 1814 – 1 March 1815	Vacant Title next held by Napoléon II

v • d • e Chronology of French monarchs Medieval France (987-1328) House of Capet Hugh (987-996) • Robert II (996-1031) • Henry I (1031-1060) • Philip I (1060-1108) • Louis VI (1108-1137) • Louis VII (1137-1180) • Philip II (1180-1223) • Louis VIII (1223-1226) • Louis IX (1226-1270) • Philip III (1270-1285) • Philip IV (1285-1314) • Louis X (1314-1316) • John I (1316) • Philip V (1316-1322) • Charles IV (1322-1328) Medieval France (1328-1498) House of Valois Philip VI (1328-1350) • John II (1350-1364) • Charles V (1364-1380) • Charles VI (1380-1422) • Charles VII (1422-1461) • Louis XI (1461-1483) • Charles VIII (1483-1498) Early Modern France (1498-1515) House of Valois-Orléans Louis XII (1498-1515) Early Modern France (1515-1589) House of Valois-Angoulême Francis I (1515-1547) • Henry II (1547-1559) • Francis II (1559-1560) • Charles IX (1560-1574) • Henry III (1574-1589) Early Modern France (1589-1792) House of Bourbon Henry IV (1589-1610) • Louis XIII (1610-1643) • Louis XIV (1643-1715) • Louis XV (1715-1774) • Louis XVI (1774-1792) • Louis XVII (de jure, 1792-1795) First Empire (1804-1814) House of Bonaparte Napoleon I (1804-1814, 1815) • Napoleon II (1815) Bourbon Restoration (1814, 1815-1830) House of Bourbon Louis XVIII (1814-1815, 1815-1824) • Charles X (1824-1830) • Louis XIX (1830)[citation needed] • Henry V (1830)[citation needed] July Monarchy (1830-1848) House of Orléans Louis-Philippe (1830-1848) Second Empire (1852-1870) House of Bonaparte Napoleon III (1852-1870)

v • d • e Republican Heads of State of France First Republic National Convention  · Directory  · Napoleon Bonaparte Second Republic Jacques-Charles Dupont de l'Eure  · Executive Commission  · Louis-Eugène Cavaignac  · Louis Napoleon Bonaparte Interregnum Louis Jules Trochui Third Republic Adolphe Thiers  · Patrice de Mac-Mahon  · Jules Armand Dufaurea  · Jules Grévy  · Maurice Rouviera  · Marie François Sadi Carnot  · Charles Dupuya  · Jean Casimir-Perier  · Charles Dupuya  · Félix Faure  · Charles Dupuya  · Émile Loubet  · Armand Fallières  · Raymond Poincaré  · Paul Deschanel  · Alexandre Millerand  · Frédéric François-Marsala  · Gaston Doumergue  · Paul Doumer  · André Tardieua  · Albert Lebrun Vichy France Philippe Pétain Provisional Government Charles de Gaulle  · Félix Gouin  · Georges Bidault  · Vincent Aurioli  · Léon Blum Fourth Republic Vincent Auriol  · René Coty Fifth Republic Charles de Gaulle  · Alain Poheri  · Georges Pompidou  · Alain Poheri  · Valéry Giscard d'Estaing  · François Mitterrand  · Jacques Chirac  · Nicolas Sarkozy (i) interim(a) acting

v • d • e German Confederations 1806–1871 Confederation of the Rhine 1806–1813 Protector: Napoleon I of France (1806–1813) Prince primate: Karl Theodor von Dalberg (1806–1813) • Eugène de Beauharnais (1813) German Confederation 1815–1866 Presidents: Francis I of Austria (1815–1835) • Ferdinand I of Austria (1835–1848) • Francis Joseph I of Austria (1849–1866) Imperial regent: Archduke Johann of Austria (1848–1849) North German Confederation 1867–1871 President: William I of Prussia (1867–1871) List of German monarchs – History of Germany – House of Habsburg-Lorraine – House of Hohenzollern

v • d • e Pretenders to the Throne of France since 1792 Monarchy in Exile (1792-1815) Louis XVI (1792-1793)  · Louis XVII (1793-1795)  · Louis XVIII (1795-1814, 1815) Legitimist Pretenders (1830-present) Charles X (1830-1836)  · Louis XIX (1836-1844)  · Henri V (1844-1883)  · Jean III (1883-1887)  · Charles XI (1887-1909)  · Jacques I (1909-1931)  · Alphonse I (1931-1936)  · Alphonse II (1936-1941)  · Jacques II (1941-1975)  · Alphonse III (1975-1989)  · Louis XX (1989-present) Orléanist Pretenders (1848-present) Louis-Philippe (1848-1850)  · Philippe VII (1850-1870)  · Henri V (1870-1894)  ·  · Philippe VIII (1894-1926)  · Jean III (1926-1940)  · Henri VI (1940-1999)  · Henri VII (1999-present) Bonapartist Prince Imperial (1814-present) Napoléon I (1814, 1815-1821)  · Napoléon II (1821-1832)  · Joseph (1832-1844)  · Louis (1844-1846)  · Napoléon III (1846-1852, 1870-1873)  · Napoléon IV Eugène (1873-1879) · Napoléon V Victor (1879-1926)  · Napoléon VI Louis (1926-1997)  · Napoléon VII Charles (1997-present)  · Napoléon VIII Jean-Christophe (1997-present, disputed) Bonapartist Prince Canino (1832-1924) Lucien I (1832-1840)  · Charles (1840-1857)  · Joseph (1857-1865)  · Lucien II (1865-1895)  · Napoléon III Charles (1895-1899)  · Roland (1899-1924)

Persondata
NAME	Bonaparte, Napoleon
ALTERNATIVE NAMES	Napoleon I Bonaparte, Emperor of the French, King of Italy
SHORT DESCRIPTION	French general and ruler
DATE OF BIRTH	15 August 1769
PLACE OF BIRTH	Ajaccio, Corsica
DATE OF DEATH	5 May 1821
PLACE OF DEATH	Saint Helena

v • d • e List of Kings who were termed the Great The Greats in Asia Ramkhamhaeng · Naresuan · Narai · Taksin · Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke · Chulalongkorn · Bhumibol Adulyadej · Phra Chao Prom the Great · Sejong the Great of Joseon · Ashoka the great · Kanishka · Akbar the Great · Mengrai The Greats in Europe Julius Caesar · Alfred the Great · Peter I of Russia · Catherine II of Russia · Frederick II of Prussia · Napoléon Bonaparte · The Greats in the Middle East Ramesses II · Alexander the Great  · Cyrus the Great · Suleiman the Magnificent

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