'''Cleophis''' (Sanskrit: ''Kripa''?) According to scholars, Indian equivalent of classical name Cleophis is Kripa: See e.g: Ancient India, 2003, p 261, Dr V. D. Majan; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 284, Dr J. L. Kamboj; Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 149, K. D. Sethna. was the mother of Assakenos or Assacanus, the reigning war-leader of the Assakenoi or Assacani people at the time of Alexander’s invasion (Curtius). The Assakenois (Sanskrit Ashvakas: ''from Ashva = horse'') were a free people (Republican) History of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, p 46, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar; Alexander the Great, Cambridge University Press, Dec 2003, W. W. Tarn; Ancient Kamboja,, People and the Country, 1981. who formed a sub-section of the Kambojas (q.v.) of Paropamisadae and lived in parts of Swat and Buner valleys during Alexander’s invasion Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133 fn 6, pp 216-20, (Also Commentary p 576 fn 22), Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Historie du bouddhisme Indien, p110, Dr E. Lammotte; Panjab Past and Present, pp 9-10, Dr Buddha Parkash. J. W. McCrindle says that the modern Afghanistan -- the Kaofu (Kambu) of Hiun_Tsang was ancient Kamboja, and the name Afghan evidently derives from the Ashavakan, the Assakenoi of Arrian (Alexandra's Invasion of India, p 38; Megasthenes and Arrian, p 180, J. McCrindle); Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, pp 271-72, 278, Dr J. L. Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 119, 192, K. S. Dardi; Kambojas, Through the Ages, 2005, pp 129, 218-19, S Kirpal Singh; Sir Thomas H. Holdich, in his classic book, ''(The Gates of India, p 102-03)'', writes that the Aspasians (Aspasios) represent the modern Kafirs. But the modern Kafirs, especially the Siah-Posh Kafirs (Kamoz/Camoje, Kamtoz) etc are considered to be modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas.. The habitat of the Assakenois roughly corresponded to modern Kafirstan (Dr R. K. Mukerjee). Since this region was comparatively more Indian than Iranian in language and culture, hence the Assakenois have been referred to as Indians by Arrian Chinnick, Arrian's Anabasis, p 399; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 211-12, Dr Raychaudhury.. Their territory stretched as far as Indus on the east with capital at Massaga (Sanskrit ''Mashakavati'') which was a formidable fortress situated not far to the north of the Malakand_Pass. In modern time, it corresponds to Mashkine located between rivers Panjkora and Kunar about 24 miles from Bajore. The Assakenois were excellent breeders of horses as well as expert cavalrymen i.e. ''Ashva.yuddha.kushalah'' (MBH 12/101/5, Kumbhakonam Ed); See Pali evidence: 'Kambojo.Assanam.Ayatanam' =''Kamboja, the land of horses'' (Sumangavilasini, Vol I, p 121); See: Dictionary of Pali Proper Names (DPPN), Vol I, 526, Dr. G. P. Malalasekara for ''Kamboja as the birth place of horses''; See also Mahabharata VI.90.3; For more details see the Articles: Kamboja_Horsemen & Ashvakas. who also rented their cavalry services (''as mercenaries''), hence they also earned the popular nickname as Ashvakas i.e expert cavalrymenSee: Hindu Polity, A contitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, p 140, 121, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, 272, Dr J. L. Kamboj.. They are referred to as Ashvakayanas in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi Ashtadhyayi Sutra IV.1.99.. The Coins known as ''Vatashvaka'' are attributed to these peoples Ibid, p 45, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar; Hindu Polity, A contitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, p 51, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research Society, XX, 289 on their coins. "The Varta (or Vata)-Ashvakas (Arrian, Bk. V, Chap. I; Arrian Indika) were the Ashvakas who inhabited the Eastern Afghanistan and who were included in the general term Kamboja.......Here ''Vata-'' stands for ''Varta-'' which reminds us of the ''Varta.shastr.opajivin'' (Nation-in-arms) description of theirs (i.e. Kambojas) in the Arthashastra......" (Ref: Hindu Polity, Part I & II, pp 51, 121, Dr Jayswal; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 11, Dr J. L. Kamboj).. There was also a western branch of the Ashvakas located in the region watered by rivers Alishang and Kunar Cambridge History of India, 352, n 3; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 215, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee.. They are the Aspasios of the classical writings. They were Iranian branch of the Kambojas since the classical writers address them as Aspasios (''from Iranian Aspa = horse''). They are known as Ashvayanas in Panini's Ashtadhyayi Ashtadhyayi Sutra IV.1.110.. Image:kamboj_ages.jpg (Kamboja) Warrior ]] ==Alexander’s war with Ashvakas== Alexander personally led a compaign against the Aspasios and later the Assakenois. The Assakenois (Ashvakas) had opposed the invader with an army of 30000 cavalry, 38000 infantry and 30 elephants (as stated by Curtius). A contingent of 7000 Kamboj soldiers were brought from Abhisara Abhisara and Ursa were parts of Kamboja. See: Political History of ancient India, 1996, p 21920; A History of India, p 269-71, N. R. Ray, N. K. Sinha.. The Ashvakas had fought valiantly and offered a stubborn resistance to the invader in many of their strongholds. Massaga was the scene of bloodiest fight. Alexander received a serious wound in the fighting at Massaga. The city could not be stormed even after five days (''nine days according to Curius'') of bloody fight. On fifth day, ''Assakenos'', the Chieftain of the Ashvakas fell a Martyr in the field. Thereupon, the supreme command of the military operations was assumed by Cleophis. Like her son, Cleophis stood determined to defend her motherland to the last extremity. The example of Cleophis assuming the command of the military operations also brought the entire women of the locality into the fighting Ancient India, 1971, p 99, Dr R. C. Majumdar; History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, Foreign Invasion, p 46, Dr R. K Mukerjee; Ancient India, 2003, p 261, Dr V. D. Mahajan; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 132, S Kirpal Singh; Ancient Kamboja, Peopoe and the Country, 1981, pp 283, 285, Dr J. L. Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, 123, K. S. Dardi.. See also: http://san.beck.org/EC10-Social.html. Image:AlexanderTheGreat_Bust.jpg of Alexander.]] Referring to Massaga battle, Greek historian Arrian (''Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon''') asserts that only ''25 soldiers of Alexander had died during the five days of bloody fight at Massaga'' Anabasis, Book 4b, Ch XXVI.. He further asserts that after the fall of their Chieftain, the Ashvakas had got dispirited and sent an Embassy to Alexander for ceasefire. An agreement was reached between Alexander and the tribes-people according to which the latter were to vacate the fort and the mercenaries were to join Alexander's forces. After vacating the fort, tribes-people had gathered on a Ridge when Alexander (according to Arrian) got the intelligence through his spies that the mercenaries did not want to fight against their own countrymen and were planning to escape during night. Alexander surrounded the ridge and slaughtered all the tribes-people gathered there The Invasion of Alexander The Great, pp 68-69, J. W. McCrindle.. But the accounts of Curtius (''Quintus Curtius Rufus'') do not support any of the above statements of Arrian. The earlier accounts of Diodorus (''Diodorus Siculus'') also completely belie above accounts of Arrian. Diodorus nowhere refers to any agreement whereby the mercenaries had agreed to join Alexander's forces but later on backed out and planned to escape under the pall of darkness. Rather he specifically states that the tribes-people had vacated the fort in accordance with the agreement and had gone about 80 stadia when Alexander, 'infected with inveterate feelings of enimity' and ''having already alerted his forces in advance'', pounced upon the tribes-people and despersed their ranks cf: “After promising the surrounded Assacenis their lives upon capitulation, he executed all their soldiers who had surrendered. Their strongholds at Ora and Aornus were also likewise stormed. Garrisons were probably all slaughterd” (Ref: ''Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power, 2002, p 86, Victor Hanson''). “In Massaga-the lands of the Assaceni, Alexander violated pacts and ordered the slaughter of several thousand Indian soldiers who had surrounded” (Ref: Alexander the Great: The Conqueror, February 2005, Thunder Bay Press, p 105, Giampaolo Casati).. Diodorus gives a very vivid accounts of the battle that followed and also greatly applauds the courage and heroism shown by the tribes-men and women against Alexanderian forces Classical Acounts of India, p 112-113.. Still another Greek chronicler Plutarch (''Mestrius Plutarchus'') prior to Arrian, attests that ''Alexander had suffered very heavy casualties in five days of bloody fight with the Ashvakas, and therefore he entered into a peace-treaty with them, but later on, as they were leaving the fort in compliance of the terms of the agreement, Alexander (treacherously) waylaid them and committed a complete carnage''. Plutarch swears at Alexander for his betrayal action and calls it ''a blot on the reputation of a great soldier'' Plutarch in McCrindle, p 306.. Curtius attests: ''"Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubbles"''. The above statement clearly shows that Alexander must have suffered severe losses at the hands of the Assakenois so that he consequently lost his poise and attacked the buildings of Massaga, thus committing arson to give vent to his boiling wrath. From the foregoing discussion, it becomes quite clear that not only did Arrian ''gloss over the treachery of Alexander'', but also did he ''downplay the bravery and heroism of the Ashvakas''. His claims that ''only 25 soldiers of Alexander had died in five days of bloody fighting for the control of Massaga fort'', cast very serious doubts on his integrity as an impartial chronicler. The war accounts of Diodorus who preceded Arrian by about 200 years differs materially from the latter and crticise Alexander for his treachery and mean action Diodorus in McCrindle, 270; Classical Acounts of India, p 112-113.. Also the accounts of Plutarch indisputably prove that the initiative for peace treaty had come not from the Ashvakas but from Alexander himself which clearly indicates that Alexander must have suffered severe losses in this battle with the Assakenois. Arrian indeed seems to be a partial chronicler and a lier on top of it who has intentionally tried to misrepresent the actual historical facts These Kamboj People, 1979, p 124, K. S. Dardi; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 134, S Kirpal Singh.. ==On Cleophis’s alleged intrigue with Alexander== Based on the accounts of some later Classical writers like Curtius or Justin, some people tend to believe in the tale of Cleophis’s intrigue with Alexander. But not only the accounts of the various classical writers do not concur but they so widely diverge on this issue that the story rather seems to be baseless and not more than a romantic invention cf: Studies in Indian History and Civilization, 1962, p 125; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 284-86; Dr J. L. Kamboj; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 135, S Kirpal Singh ===Diodorus's evidence on Cleophis=== Diodorus (93 c BCE 30 c BCE), the earliest historian on the subject, does not refer to any matrimonial alliance or intrigue of Cleophis with Alexander. Diodorus simply attests that after the finalisation of terms of treaty of friendship between Ashvakas and Alexander executed under oaths, ''Cleophis sent precious gifts to Alexander with a message that she expressed her appreciation of Alexander’s greatness and assured him that she would comply with the terms of the treaty''Classical Accounts of India, p162, J. W. McCrindle.. But since Alexander himself violated the treaty by treacherously attacking the Ashvakas and the mercenaries from Abhisara as they were leaving the city, the Ashvakas led by Cleophis gave a determined fight-back to the unprincipled and treacherous invader, thus shedding the last drop of their blood. Even Ashvakan women took up arms enmass and joined the battle fighting side by side with their husbands "The army was led by a late kings’ mother queen Cleophis (Kripa?). The example of woman-commander leading a struggle for freedom in person brought the entire womanhood of Massaga into fight": (See: History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, Foreign Invasion, p 46, Dr R. K Mukerjee; Ancient India, 2003, p 261, Dr V. D. Mahajan; Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 149, K. D. Sethna). "The women took up arms of the fallen and fought side by side with the men": (See: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 231).. Diodorus attests that Ashvakas women had fought side by side with their menfolk thus '' 'preferring death to a life of dishonor' ''Diodorus in McCrindle, p 270.. This scenario shows that Cleophis had engaged herself in the fight but it is too difficult to specualte as to what happened to her in the end-- whether she fell a Martyr in the battle-field or else fell into enemy's hands is anybody's guess Studies in Indian History and Civilization, 1962, p 125, Dr Buddha Prakash.. According to Curtius and Arrian, Cleophis was captured along with her young grand daughterClassical accounts of India, pp 112-63; Arrian's Anabasis, Book 4b, Ch XXVI; The Pathans, p 50, Olaf Caroe, Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 284, Dr J. L. Kamboj.. ===Plutarch's evidence on Cleophis=== Plutarch (46 c AD 127 c AD) too does not give any indication or hint of Cleophis’s intrigue with Alexander. He simply reprimands Alexander for his unprincipled conduct and violation of the treaty of peace and friendship with the Ashvakas; and calls it ''a blot on the fair name of a great soldier''Plutarch in McCrindle, p 306.. ===Arrian's evidence on Cleophis=== Even Arrian (92 c AD – 175 c AD) makes no reference whatsoever, to Cleophis-Alexander matrimonial alliance or intrigue. He only says that Alexander had captured the mother and daughter of Assakenos (Chieftain of the Ashavakas) who had been killed on the fifth day of the fight at Massaga Arrian’s Anabasis, 4B, Ch XXVI.. ===Curtius's evidence on Cleophis=== Curtius, a Roman historian belonging to later half of first c AD, has referred to Alexander-Cleophis tale here and there with some differences. He writes that Cleophis was the mother and not the wife of Assakenos (Ashvaka Chieftain) and was captured along with her grand daughter after the fall of Massaga. She was the ruler of Assakenois after her son's death which had occurred before Alexander's invasion. When the defenses of Massaga became impossible under extreme pressure from the enemy, Cleophis surrendered and sent an Embassy to Alexander seeking peace and friendship with the enemy. She personally placed her son on Alexander’s lap while her ladies poured libations. Curtius writes: ''" According to some, Alexander was moved to pardon Cleophis not because he was sorry for her but because of her beauty" ''The History of Alexander the Great by Quintus Curtius Rufus 8.10.34-35.. Continues Curtius: ''"Whatever may be the reason, Cleophis later gave birth to a son. Whosoever may have been his author, she named him Alexander"''The History of Alexander the Great by Quintus Curtius Rufus 8.10.36.. Dr Buddha Prakash comments on above statements of Curtius: ''“This clearly indicates that Curtius himself was not sure about the truth in the rumor regarding alleged Alexander-Cleophis intrigue. He probably had heard it from someone and given it place in his writings but without taking upon himself the responsibility for its authenticity"'' Dr Buddha Prakash, Studies in Indian History and Civilization, 1962, p 125; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 284-85, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 135-36, S Kirpal Singh.. According to other view, Curtius himself may have invented the lurid tale to excite his Roman readers about the decadence of the opulent Orient. ===Justin's evidence on Cleophis=== Justin, (''Marcus Junianus Justinus'') who also was a Roman historian and belonged to 3rd c AD, presents the Cleophis-Alexander intrigue as if it were true and Authentic. Justin says that Cleophis recovered her kingdom and position by sleeping with Alexander and bore him a son called Alexander. Justin further remarks: ''"Queen Cleophis, for allowing her chastity to be violated, was thenceforth called by the Indians the 'royal harlot' ''Justin, Book 12, Part 2, 7.11. '''See link''': http://websfor.org/alexander/justin/justin12_7.asp.. But Justin is far removed, more than 500 years, from the actual date of event, ''hence his claims to the genuineness and authenticity of the tale stands much weaker as compared to other four writers who preceded him'' Studies in Indian History and Civilization, 1962, p 125, Dr Buddha Parkash; '''For detailed discussion see''': Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 284-86, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 134-35, S Kirpal Singh; History of Punjab, I, pp 225-32, Dr Buddha Parkash; cf: Alexander the Great, 2003, p 324, Dr W. W. Tarn.. ===Prof Edward A. Freeman on Justin and Curtius=== On the trustworthiness of Justin and Curtius, Edward_Augustus_Freeman, Regius_Professor_of_Modern_History__(Oxford), in his ''Historical Essays'' observes that Justin is quite a weak and careless writer. And Curtius is not more than a romantic story teller who can easily loose track and stray from truth Historical Essays, Second Series, 3rd edition, pp 183-184, Edward A. Freeman, M. A., HON. D. C. L. & LL.D., Regius Professor of Modern History in the University of Oxford, London Macmillan and Co., And New York,1892.. ==Conflicting views== There is no unanimity among the Classical writers on the personal history of Cleophis. While some writers say that Cleophis was wife of the Assakenos (the war-leader of the Ashvakas), Curtius says that she was his mother Cur 8.10.22; See also: Who's Who In The Age Of Alexander The Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire – 2005, Page 59, by Waldemar Heckel - Biography & Autobiography.. Arrian also refers to her as his mother. According to Curtius, Assakenos had died before Alexander's invasion but according to Arrian, he was killed on fifth day of the Massaga siege whereafter the supreme command went to Cleophis. It is also pointed out that Cleophis was captured along with her teen-aged grand-daughter after the fall of Massaga. There are conflicting details on her own issues too. Her one son called Erix by Curtius and Aphrikes by Diodorus had led the flying defenders of the famous fortress of Aornos against the Greeks. Her another son said to be Amminais had recruited 7000 Kamboja soldiery from Abhisara W. Heckel & Waldemar Heckel observe: "'''Apprikes''' (''Airikes'', ''Erices'', (''Ariplex'' according to Metz Epitome 42)) was brother of '''Assakenos''', the deceased dynast of the Assakenois and of '''Amminais''' (Metz Epitome 39); thus also a son of Kleophis (i.e Cleophis), together with whom he is found at Massaga in spring 326 BCE (Metz Epitome 42). Aphrikes attempted to block one of the passes of the Buner region (near Embolima) with a force of 20,000 Indians (Curtius. 8. 12. 1; Diodorus. 17. 86. 2, giving him also 15 elephants) and he was killed by his own troops, who sent his head to Alexander in order to win his pardon (Diodorus. 17. 86. 2)...."(See: ''The Marshals of Alexander's Empire, Routledge, 1993, pp 62-63, W. Heckel, Waldemar Heckel''). Cleophis's second son Amminais had recruited 7000 Kamboja soldiery from Abhisara.. According to Curtius, at the surrender of Massaga, Cleophis placed her own little son on Alexander’s lap Curtius 8.10.34-35.. On the other hand ''Metz Epitome'' points out that it was Cleophis's grandson (''not son'') whom Cleophis had placed in Alexander' lap Metz Epitome 45.. While Curtius concedes that Cleophis later bore a son whom she named Alexander, but he does not commit himself as to the identity of the fatherThe History of Alexander the Great, Quintus Curtius Rufus 8.10.36.. On the other hand Justin maintains that Cleophis had born Alexander a son Justin's epitome of Pompeius Trogus's Philippic History, 12.7. But the Metz Epitome makes no mention of any baby born by Cleophis in post-invasion periodThe Metz Epitome is also a Latin source of later time and of unknown authorship. ==Cleophis over 50 at the time of Invasion== Cleophis was a widow mother of the proud and freedom-loving war leaders ''Assakenos, Aphrikes and Ammanais''Classical accounts attest at least three grown-up warrior sons of Cleophis. There could be more too. And Assakenos is attested to be father of at least one daughter. He may well have had more issues elder to his daughter. The classical source do not attest if Aphrikes and Ammanais were elder or younger brothers of Assakenos. What if one of them is (or both are) elder to Assakenos. There are many possibilities here. In this scenario, Cleophis could very well turn out to be within her fifties and sixties.. Assakenos is stated to have been father of a young daughter. This clearly proves that Cleophis was grandmother to a teen-aged girl and therefore, must have been over fifty at the time of invasion. It is highly improbable that ''an Indian woman over fifty years of age Dr W. W. Taran calls Cleophis a middle-aged lady, see: Alexander the Great, December, 2003 - Cambridge University Press, p 45, Dr W. W. Tarn; See also: Appian XVIII, p. 324. But scholars like Dr J. L. Kamboj and S Kirpal Singh etc say that Cleophis was over 50 years at the time of Alexander's invasion (See: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 284, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 135, S Kirpal Singh). and with grand mother's status, a mother of three war-leaders who fought the invader tooth and nails to preserve their self-respect and independence and who probably were of the same age as Alexender, a lady from the most belligrant and warlike tribals of the hillls, should get into intrigue with 30 year old Alexander, sleep with him and bear him an illegitimate son''. A fantastic tale indeed Cf: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 284, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 135, S. Kirpal Singh. 'Based as it is on telltales and rumors, the Alexander-Cleophis account referred to by the classical writers who thought of Indians as barbarians and inferior race, may be taken with a grain of salt', comments Dr J. L. Kamboj.! One should also not forget the fact that Ashvakas were a ferocious, fiercely independent and self-respecting Fanatic tribal people who had an intense hatred of the invaders. They were the first to rise in rebellion and strike the Greek rulers, and within a year when Alexander was still in India, they had assassinated Greek Prefect (i.e. Governor) Nicanor at Massaga and had further declared to eliminate ''Sisikottos'' who was from their own kinship and was appointed Governor of ''Aornos'' by Alexander. It is highly doubtful that Cleophis ''living within this kind of culture and psychology and with one of her three grown-up warrior sons still around, could enter into an intrigue with Alexander and be a mother to an illegitimate son''! Moreover, the unequivocal statements by Diodorus, the earliest Greek chronicler of this saga, that their women had also fought side by side with their menfolk and '' 'preferred death to a life of dishonor' '' Diodorus in McCrindle, p 270. clearly leaves no room for doubt about ''the psyche, spirit and moral/ethical values of the oriental Massaga women'' whom Cleophis had led and represented in the battle-field. It does not have to be overemphasised here that middle-aged Cleophis was not yet westernised, so to say! ==Unproven and false allegation== Most scholars therefore, reject Justin’s version of Cleophis-Alexander tale as nothing more than rumor-based romantic Myth. The classical notices on Cleophis's matrimonial alliance with Alexander are believed to be similar to the baseless rumors regarding the base origin of the Nandas, the rulers of Magadha (Dr Buddha Parkash). This kind of rumors take easy roots among the illiterate and superstitious people about the royal families Studies in Indian History and Civilization, p 125, Dr Buddha Parkash; See: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 283-286, Dr J. L. Kamboj.. ''The following is extract from'' '''"The Greeks in India"''' by celebrated Dr W. W. Tarn, who is an unquestioned authority on this subject'':. 'On Curtius' mentality (5 G, pp. 92 sq.)'.. ''"The story of Alexander's intrigue with Cleophis, 'queen' of the Assaceni of Gandhara who ruled in Massaga, is worse than untrue, it is silly; though, unlike the Amazon and ' Memnon's widow', Cleophis really did exist. She was not, however, a queen, for the Assaceni were part of the Asvaka,' one of the 'free peoples' who had neither kings nor queens (if Indians ever were ruled by queens); her son was not king, neither had he died before Alexander came, as Curtius says; every detail in the story is wrong. Her son, in actual fact, was ~ysµwv, the people's war-leader, and she was merely his mother, a woman with a grownup son (and a war-leader would not to be very young) and also a grand-daughter; '''few 'romantic inventions' have miscarried worse'''. Even Curtius only gives the story as what 'some' believed, leaving direct affirmation to Justin"''See: Alexander the Great, 2003, p 324, Dr W. W. Tarn.. ==Cleophis was innocent== The foregoing evidences and discussion prove that Cleophis-Alexander intrigue is baseless and Cleophis was indeed innocent. A lurid tale was concocted, perhaps, by the prururient ''vulgate source'' to take liberties with her image and to generate a sensational material to excite the Roman readers about the decadence of the opulent Orient. Later, Justin picked up the story and made it still more graphic and lurid to impress his audience. It is notable that both Curtius and Justin who promoted Cleophis-Alexander-intrigue were Roman writers of later times. Cleophis was a great Heroine, a mature leader, a valiant Warrior and a true patriot who had given a befitting fight possible under the circumstances, to an invader and led her people out of the unprecedented crisis at such a critical juncture of their history. Being from ''The Fair' Sex'', she unfortunately fell a victim to the romantic concotions and indulgences which the ''weak and careless'' Classical Intellectual-Pimps like Justin have stamped as if they were Authentic. ==On the trustworthiness of classical accounts== Scholars believe that the values of Classical accounts is reduced by the fact that we have a clear evidences of the texts being tempered with in later times The Classical accounts of India, Introduction, p xxv, Dr R. C. Majumdar.. The classical writers also suffered from a Superiority_complex. They held that the Nations conquered by Alexander were Barbarous and became Civilized by contacts with the Greeks, by whose influence alone, the barbarianism was crushed Ibid, Dr R. C. Majumdar. Greek Philosopher Aristotle preached the ideolgy that the Greeks are superior to other races and the Barbarians who do not accept Greek mastery should be invaded, plundered and subjugated. With this historical background, it was only expected that the classical writers would give anything but a fair and impartial treatment to the Indians, be it Royalty or Commonalty.. We must dismiss from our mind the notion that the statements of classical writers have any special claims to be recognised as true or authentic and based on ascertained factsibid, Dr R. C. Majumdar.. According to Dr Buddha Parkash, the historians of Alexander, (like the Indian Bards), were motivated with the thought to exaggerate and extol, at any cost, the military achievements of their hero i.e AlexanderStudies in Indian History and Civilization, p 86-87, Dr Buddha Parkash.. Therefore, the statements of classical writers about Cleophis '' also need to be examined ''more critically and objectively'' before their being accepted at their face value''. ==References== ==Books and Megazines== *Historie du bouddhisme Indien, Dr E. Lammotte *Alexander the Great, 2003 - Cambridge University Press, W. W. Tarn *Political History of Ancient India, 1996, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury *The Invasion Of India By Alexander The Great As Described By Arrian, Q. Curtius, Diodorus, Plutarch And Justin, J. W. McCrindle *Envy of the Gods: Alexander the Great's Ill-fated Journey Across Asia, John Prevas *Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power, Victor Hanson *Alexander: A History of the Origin and Growth of the Art of War from the Earliest Times to the Battle of Ipsus, 301 Bc, With a Detailed Account of the Campaigns, 1996- Da Capo Press, Theodore Ayrault Dodge *Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction, 2002 - Oxford University Press, USA, A. B. Bosworth and E. J. Baynham *The Wars of Alexander the Great, 2002- Osprey Publishing, Waldemar Heckel *Classical Accounts of India, J. W. McCrindle *History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar *The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, S Kirpal Singh *These Kamboja People, 1979, K. S. Dardi *Ancient India, 2003, Dr V. D. Mahajan *Problems of Ancient India, 2000, K. D. Sethna *The Pathan., 1967, Olaf Caroe *Historical Essays, Second Series, 3rd edition, Edward A. Freeman, M. A., HON. D. C. L. & LL.D., Regius Professor of Modern History in the University of Oxford, London Macmillan and Co. And New York,1892 *Alexander the Great, 2003, Dr W. W. Tarn *Studies in Indian History and Civilization, Dr Buddha Parkash *Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, Dr J. L. Kamboj *Hindu Polity, A contitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, p 140, 121, Dr K. P. Jayswal ==See also== *Kambojas *Ashvakas *Kamboja_Horsemen ==Wiki Classical Dictionary Link== Krateros (Editor), Article '''Cleophis''' in ''ancientlibrary.com'' 2005. Category:Kambojas Category:Warriors Category:History_of_India Category:History_of_Pakistan Category:History_of_Afghanistan Category:Alexander_the_Great Category:Women_in_ancient_warfare Category:Year_of_birth_unknown Category:Year_of_death_unknown