Van Resistance

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Van Resistance
Վանի Հերոսամարտ

Armenian troops holding a defense line against Turkish forces in the walled city of Van in May 1915.
Date April 19, 1915 - May 6, 1915
Location City of Van, vilâyet of Van
Result Armenian victory
Belligerents
 Ottoman Empire Armenian residents of Van
Commanders
Jevdet Bey
Rafael de Nogales		 Armenak Yekarian
Aram Manougian
Strength
3rd Army
5,000[citation needed]		 1,500[citation needed]
Casualties and losses
55,000 civilians [1][2]
v • d • e

The Resistance at Van (Armenian: Վանի Հերոսամարտ) was an insurgency against the Ottoman Empire's attempts to eliminate the Armenian population in the vilâyet of Van. Based mostly in the city of Van, it was one of the few instances during the Armenian Genocide when Armenians, in an act of self-defense, fought against the Ottoman Empire's armed forces. The fighting lasted from April 19, 1915 until May 4 of that year, when the Ottoman army retreated as Russian forces approached the city.

Contents

[edit] Background

Main articles: Hamidian massacres and Defense of Van

During the late Ottoman period, Van was an important center of Armenian cultural, social, and economic life. Khrimian Hayrik established a printing press in Van, and thereafter launched Artsiv Vaspurakan (Eagle of Vaspourakan), which was the first periodical publication in Armenia.[citation needed] In 1885, the Armenakan party was established in the city of Van. Soonafter, the Hnchak and Dashnak parties, whose missions were basically the overthrow of the Ottoman rule in Eastern Turkey (see Armenian Revolutionary Federation), established branches in the city.

Throughout 1895-96 Armenians in the Ottoman Empire suffered in a wave of violence commonly known as the Hamidian massacres. While Van largely avoided massacres in 1895, the Ottomans send a military expedition in June 1896. Armenians were initially able to defend themselves in Van, but upon agreeing to disarm in exchange for safety, massacres continued, culminating in the death of over 20,000 Armenians.

There are different sources for pre-war (World War I) demographic values of the Van Province, Ottoman Empire. In 1914, Armenians lived on the shores of the lake Van. The major Armenian inhabited localities included the city of Van (consisted three sub-sections; Havasor, Timar and Ercek (Arshak - Archag)), at the north of the province district Erciş (Ardjish - Akantz), and at the south of the province district Çatak (Shadakh - Shataq - Shattakh), district Başkale (Bashkaleh - Bash Kaleh) and district Bahçesaray (Moks). In 1896 census, there were 79,998 Armenians[3], and they were located in the city of Van 35%, Erciş 64%, Çatak 37%, Başkale 18%, Bahçesaray 48%.[4] The 1912 local Patriarch statistic states that there were 110,000 Armenians.[5] The original 1914 Ottoman census stated that Armenian population was 67,797 and Muslims population was 179,422.[6] The 1914 official census was challenged both on Armenian and Muslim population size. The original 1914 Ottoman statistics claimed to be under representative for the children. The corrected values for Van province was; 313,000 Muslim, 130,000 Armenian (25%), and 65,000 or so Syrian, Chaldean, Nestorian and others[7] Population estimates for the Van city itself is more difficult. There were extensive population movements in and around the city as the economic and political situation deteriorated rapidly before at the dawn of the World War I. Ottoman population count at the time recorded 79,000 Muslims and 34,000 Armenians in the Van district, which included the immediate surrounding areas too.[8] The city of Van's Armenian population was about 30,000 people in the fall of 1914.[9] Christopher Walker states "in Van province they [Armenians] constituted an absolute majority [more than %50] over the combined Turkish and Kurdish [Muslims] population,[10]" the source of this information is not cited by this author.

Geographic and Demographic maps of the Van Province, Ottoman Empire

Political map.

1896, Armenian population ratios in the districts.

1914, Ottoman Cencus

The neighborhoods of city of Van

[edit] Prelude: Caucasian Front

See also: Caucasian Front (WWI), Assyrian Genocide, and Armenian Genocide
  Armenian Genocide
Background:
The Genocide
Armenian Population
See Also
 v • d • e 

On October 30 1914, Ottoman Empire entered the World War One after an exchange of fire during the pursuit of Goeben and Breslau. The Van province lied in between the Persian Campaign and Caucasian Campaign. The most accessible routes that linked the Persia, Russia, Mesopotamia and Anatolia laid through this province.[14] Van had a very high military value as a consequence of it's location.[14]

On November 2 1914, Bergmann Offensive was the first engagement of the Caucasus Campaign[15] The Russian success was along the southern shoulders of the offense where Armenian volunteers were effective and took Karaköse and Doğubeyazıt.[16] Doğubeyazıt was the northern neighbor of Van Province.

During December 1914, Nicholas II of Russia visited the Caucasus. Telling to the head of the Armenian Church along the president of the Alexander Khatisyan of the Armenian National Bureau in Tiflis that "From all countries Armenians are hurrying to enter the ranks of the glorious Russian Army, with their blood to serve the victory of the Russian Army... Let the Russian flag wave freely over the Dardanelles and the Bosporus, Let your will the peoples [Armenian] remaining under the Turkish yoke receive freedom. Let the Armenian people of Turkey who have suffered for the faith of Christ received resurrection for a new free life ...".[17] On the other side, War Minister Enver Pasha wanted to encircle the Russian forces between Sarikamis and Ardahan. Enver assumed the personal command of the 3rd Army. The Battle of Sarikamis (December 29, 1914 - January 4, 1915) was a stunning defeat. The Armenian detachment units credited no small measure of the success which attended by the Russian forces, as they were natives of the region, adjusted to the climatic conditions, familiar with every road and mountain path, and had real incentive to fierce and resolute combat.[18] The Armenian volunteers were small, mobile, and well adapted to the semi-guerrilla warfare.[19] They did good work as scouts, though they took part in many severe engagements.[19] Armenian detachment battalions challenged the Ottoman operations during the critical times: "the delay enabled the Russian Caucasus Army to concentrate sufficient force around Sarikamish".[20] Enver blamed this defeat on Armenians living in the region actively siding with the Russia after returned to Constantinople.[21]

During Autumn of 1914, General Tovmas Nazarbekian was transferred to the Russian-occupied Persian Azerbaijan, soon Persia would be stage of the Persian Campaign.[22] Theodore G. Chernozubov and his Persian Cossack Brigade was in the Persia since 1906. Russian authorities distributed 24,000 rifles to the Kurds in Persia and the district of Van.[22] On December 11 1914, Ottoman preparation for the Persian Campaign began with the Enver Pasha's order to form of a provisional force .[23] I Expeditionary Force (before named as XI Corps) assigned to Chief of Intelligence Lieutenant Colonel Kazim Bey (later Lieutenant General Kazim Karabekir).[23] I Expeditionary Force was structurally self sufficient, capable of independent operations, supplemanted with the 7 and 9th Infantry Regiments, a cavalry detachment, a field hospital, a transportation unit, an intelligence section, a mountain howitzer battalion with two batteries, a telegraph section, a field batery, equipment repair battalion, a replacement depot and transportation assets.[23] On January 10, the original plan scraped while I Expeditionary Force was on its way to Persian Azerbaijan and assigned to the 3rd Army because of the disasterous battle of Sarikamis.[24] On March 23, 1915, I Expeditionary force arrived to the vicinity of the city of Van and later stayed in the south of Van during the conflicts.[24] The only force available, and even remotely near the Persian frontier, was the Van Jandarma Division. This paramilitary formation was lightly equipped with artillery and machineguns, and was only suited for internal security functions, rather than for an invasion of a neighboring country.[24] On December 14, 1914, Van Jandarma Division assumed the role of keeping the road to Persia open (or closed for the Russia), which pass through the Kotour valley (Kotour Pass).

[edit] Resistance at Van

Aram Manougian had been the leader throughout the conflicts. He was made governor of the province[25]

The most important change for Van was the transfer of Governor Hassan Tahsin Pasha to Erzurum and his replacement with Jevdet Bey.[26] Jevdet Bey was the brother-in-law of Enver Pasha. Jevdet Bey accompanied by Rafael de Nogales Méndez. Méndez assigned with the permission of the 3rd Army's commanding German officer to oversight the Ottoman Gendarmerie units under the new governor. The Armenian leaders were Aram Manougian, who was the regional party leader of Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF), Armenakis Yekarian from the ranks of Armenakans, Nikoghayos Poghos Mikaelian (Ishkhan) who was member of ARF, and Arshak Vramian who was the deputy of the Ottoman Parliament from Van. Vramian was also Jevdet's classmate.[26]

[edit] Jevdet's reign

During July 1914, the deputy of Van province Arshak Vramian attended to the negotiations with the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) as a liason at the Armenian congress at Erzurum. The public conclusion of this congress was "Ostensibly conducted to peaceful advance Armenian demands by legitimate means".[27] Armenian sources say that local Armenian leaders Aram Manougian, Arshak Vramian, Nikoghayos Poghos Mikaelian (Ishkhan), and Armenak Yekaryan told the Armenian population at the province of Van to remain loyal to the Ottoman government and not to antagonize it.[28] The CUP regarded the congress as the seedbed for establishing the decision of insurrection.[29] Historian Erikson concluded that after this meeting the CUP was convinced on strong Armenian — Russian links with detailed plans aimed at the detachment of the region from the Ottoman Empire.[29] Later on September 1914, the army operations for the search of arms, ammunition and operational documents began. October 20 1914, the 4th Reserve Cavalry Regiment patrolling discovered rifles cached in Armenian homes in Hasankale.[29] During this period, large numbers of Armenians with weapons were moving into Mush, Bitlis, and Van.[29] Historian Erikson concluded that "before the war began indicators of potential violent intent accumulated, as the authorities found bombs and weapons hidden in Armenian homes".[29] Although, Nogales witnessed Turkish army units photographing their own weapons, claiming they had been found in Armenian houses and churches.[30]

The War declared on November 2 1914. As early as November 5, a major attack to the 3rd Army's defensive lines at the Van Province established. Russians began larger operations toward Saray and Van by November 19.[31] During this month the Gendarme units (the provincal security apparatus) which were previously under the control of Governors changed hand to the military command. This change included the units commanded by the governer of Van. The Van Gendarme division and Van reserve cavalry divisions were assigned to Third Army.[32] Van Gendarme division assigned to Major Ferid.[33] However, Governor Jevdet kept a small contingency.

During December 1914, Ottoman forces moved to the Persian Campaign. Jevdet Bey ordered to go to the west of the Van province to the Persian border. Immediately after the declaration of war and before Jevdet Bey left the city of Van CUP negotiators were sent to Erzurum and Van. These negotiators and Jevdet Bey wanted to test the loyalty of the Van Armenians and to see once again [first one was at Armenian congress] if they agree to stage an uprising in the Russian Armenia.[34] Jevdet demanded that Armenian's furnish him 4,000 soldiers according to the conscription in the Ottoman Empire. Armenians have refused to furnish partisans. Ussher states that "it was clear that Jevdet's goals were to massacre the able bodied men of Van so as there would be no defenders, as he had done in the villages under the pretexts of arms searches, which had turned into massacres. The Armenians, parleying to gain time, offered to furnish five hundred soldiers and to pay exemption money for the rest." The Armenian conscription became an issue again when Jevdet returned to the city at the Armenian Ester (April) of 1915.[35] This time Jevdet asked to have Armenians in the city to give conscripts to be used for the establishment of Ottoman fortifications, but Ussher would say "the Armenians who had practically decided to give the Vali [Jevdet] the four thousand men he had demanded now dared not do so for they felt certain he intended to put the four thousand to death." Jevdet did not have Armenian soldiers neither at the first nor the second request from the city.

The Persian Azerbaijan had large Christian population. They were Armenians and Assyrians. Many fled with the retreating Russian army, in a horrible winter trek to the Russian border town of Julfa. Those that remained endured a grim period of looting and massacre; many villages were plundered and destroyed. A campaign to capture Khoi, 160 kilometres north-west of Tabriz, ensued, led by Djevdet Bey. After an unsuccessful attempt, Djevdet ordered the cold-blooded killing of about 800 people – mostly old men, women and children – in the Salmas district (to the north-east of Lake Urmia) in early March.

On February 25 1915, 3rd Army and the all Jandarma commands, including the Van Jandarma command, received Directive 8682 titled "Increased Security Precautions".[36] This directive noted increased dissident Armenian activity in Bitlis, Aleppo. Dortyol. and Kayseri, and furthermore identified Russian and French influence and activities in these areas.[36] The Operations Division directed that the Third and the Fourth Armies increase the surveillance and security measures.[36] Although, Felix Guse, commander in chief of the 3rd Army wrote, that there was no proof that the Armenians had planned or any intentions of mounting a general uprising.[37]

Prior to these events, horrible massacres of Armenian males in the Van region were reported by neutral observers. [38]

[edit] Order of general massacre, defense begins

 The factual accuracy of this section is disputed.
Please see the relevant discussion on the talk page.(December 2008)
Armenians digging trenches
From Ussher, Armenians making cartridges by hand[39]

Jevdet's extremism towards Armenians was more open. A man of dangerously unpredictable moods[citation needed]. , friendly one moment, ferociously hostile the next, was capable of treacherous brutality.

Upon returning to Van, Jevdet "instigated a reign of terror in the outlying villages of the province on the pretext of searching for arms." In the process, the Turkish gendarmes indiscriminately murdered Armenians. [40] The Armenian leaders of Van in the meanwhile exhorted the people to endure in silence. ". Better," they said, "that some villages be burned and destroyed unavenged than give the slightest pretext to the Moslems for a general massacre.".[41]

Some of the rules for their men [the Armenian defenders of Van] were: 'Keep clean; do not drink; tell the truth; do not curse the religion of the enemy.[42][43]

In the meantime, the massacres under the pretexts of an arms search continued.[44] In self defense and retaliation, Armenians attacked a Turkish patrol to Jevdet's anger[citation needed]. Alarmed, Armenians in Van requested Dr. Clarence Ussher, missionary and representative of the United States, to mediate between them and Jevdet. Djevdet attempted to violate the diplomatic immunity of Ussher's compound by trying to garrison 50 Turkish soldiers inside.[45] It became clear to Ussher that mediation attempts would be futile. Alarmed, Armenians in Van requested Dr. Clarence Ussher, missionary and representative of the United States, to mediate between them and Jevdet. Djevdet attempted to violate the diplomatic immunity of Ussher's compound by trying to garrison 50 Turkish soldiers inside.

On April 15, Armenians were mustered at Erciş (Ardjish) by Gendarmerie.[46] Erciş was an administrative unit with 80 Armenian villages at north of Van.[47] Earlier, the tax collectors accompanied with gendarme went to north of Van to count the sheep which the villagers taxation was depended on. The tax collector gave the Sultan's recital of order regarding the calculation of tax values.[46] Disagreement ensued between the villagers and the tax collector. The disagreement turn to conflict and extended to the gendarmerie unit in Banat and from Banat to other centers. On April 19, violence in the countryside reached a peak with 2,500 males at the town Erciş killed in a single day. [48]

On April 17, Arshak Vramian was arrested.[49] A schoolmaster was arrested in Shadakh in mid-April. There had been a local demonstration in his favor. Several prominent Armenians led by Nikoghayos Poghos Mikaelian (Ishkhan) went to this town at the request of Jevdet. Nikoghayos Poghos Mikaelian and prominent Armenians stopped midway at Hirj and murdered on April 17. Only Aram Manugian among the three leaders of ARF escaped. Jevdet took action against the leaders of the ARF in Van. This was a sign that the city was not safe for the resistance. He undoubtedly thought that by killing leaders of the of the Armenian parties, he would destroy the cohesion of the resistance. The minister of interior Mehmed Talat Bey with his order on April 24 (known by the Armenians as the Red Sunday) requested the arrest of the leaders of Armenian community at the Ottoman capital and other centers to two holding centers near Ankara. Arshak Vramian send to capital with a guard and reported to be disappeared on the way.

[edit] City under Siege, April, 20

Armenian civilian forces fought in two locations; in the "Old City" (Kale District), and the "Garden City" (Aigestan).

On April 20, According to Henry Morgenthau, the Ottoman soldiers seized an Armenian women who wanted to enter the city.[50] Two Armenian men that came to help were later shot dead.[50] Armenians attacked a Turkish patrol to Jevdet's anger. This act lead to the Turkish military forces to open fire to Armenian quarters at city with artillery, effectively laying it under siege, this was a section of the city named as Western Garden City".[50] Henry Morgenthau's account of the activities do not mention the events of April 14, which a part of Armenians, named themselves Druzhiny seized the lake side city of Van in a fierce fighting.[51] In support the local forces, Turks rushed the Van Jandarma Division, under the command of Jevdet, to contain and crush this group.[51] There were two disconnected set of conflicts in the city.

Armenian civilian forces fought in two disconnected set of battles inside the city of Van. These were the "Old City" (Kale District) and in the "Garden City" (Aigestan). The conflict at the Garden city was skirmishes along the Armenian and Muslim quarters. Both sides had fortified buildings and trenches to move along the opposition. The Armenian church at Arak was burned by the Jevdet's forces. The initial line was hold by Armenian civilian forces through out the conflict. As part of their strategy, they also attacked the nearby Turkish barracks, but besides this, they did not take many offensive actions. Though enemy artillery was largely ineffectual, they had superiority in men and arms.

On April 25, the first small group of refuges from the country side arrived to the city through the road to Shushantz which was kept open by the Armenian civilian forces.

The Armenian defenders of Van with the leadership of Aram Manougian, established a local provisional government dealing with defense, provisions, and administration – and foreign relations, to ensure that the neutrality of foreign property was respected. Judges, police and health officials were appointed.[52] It soon became urgent to get a messenger out to tell the Russians of Armenian plight. Several messengers with messages sewn in their garments were sent out. Twelve Armenian messengers had got through[53]

The city of Van during the Resistance

Defense line at the "old city," Van Fortress

From Ussher, Armenians defending the trenches blow the mission compound[54]

The cannons captured by the Armenians

[edit] Russian relief, May

On May 17, Russian cavalry and a detachment of Russian Armenian volunteers arrived to relieve the Armenian garrison of Van

On April 28, Yudenich ordered a brigade of Trans-Baikal Cossacks under General Trukhin and the Araratian volunteer brigade commanded by Sargis Mehrabyan (Vartan) to be dispatched from Erivan towards Van.[20][55] One of the twelve dispatched Armenian messengers reached the Persia[53] An Armenian volunteer unit commanded by Andranik and a division commanded by Chernoroyal dispatched from Persia was also dispatched on May 8.

On April 30, number of refugess totaled to 15,000, as the greater part of the refugees from the country side began to pour into city.[56] The Armenians in the city at this time reached to 30,000 residents and 15,000 refugees in an area of roughly one square kilometer of the Armenian Quarter and suburb of Aigestan. Jevdet allowed Armenian survivors from the villages to come to city. Refugees to enter the city through his lines. It is stated that his strategy was to subdue the defenders with more ease. After easily fighting off the initial assaults, Armenian forces had problems in supply of ammunition. They were very sparing of it. Armenians employed all sorts of devices to draw the fire of the enemy and waste their ammunition. Armenian bullet and cartridge manufacturing reached 2,000 a day. Armenians also improvised mortars and barricades. Armenians made use of anything they could find.

On May 6, a major Russian offense toward Anatolia developed.[57] Turks had defense lines using X, XI Corps, 5th Expeditionary Force at the north flank located beyond the province of Van.[57] The north flank of the Russian advance, from Tortum valley toward Erzurum, is not part of the operations in Van. However, part of this Russian offense, the 1st Expeditiory Force and the Van Cavalary Brigidate was pushed back by Russian and Armenian voluenteers advancing toward the city of Van from their initial position.[57] On May 12, the town Ardjish at the north of province of Van was relieved. Jevdet sent one cannon and two hundred man from the city of Van to face this group at the Muradiye. He was late and too weak to stop this advance. On May 6, the conflicts around the citadel of Van (in the Kale District) was over.[58]

On May 14, a Friday evening, a group of ships sailed from Van. More ships followed the next day. Turks were evacuating their women and children. On May 16, there was a bombardment of 46 shells to signal the retreat of Turkish units.

On May 17, Armenian civilian forces had control of the town. At the same time, the advance guard of the Russian forces, which pushed the 1st and 3rd Ottoman Cavalry Brigades from the city of Malazgirt since May 11, reached the north of the province and extended up to the shores of Lake Van. At the same time, the advance guard of the Russian forces that were already in the town pushed the Ottoman forces with a continued press to the south of city. These retreating Ottoman forces experienced logistical shortages caused by the interdiction of lines of communication. Soon after the Russian regulars followed them.[59]

On May 18, the group dispatched from Persia reached the city of Van.[53] On May 20, main centers of the Van was occupied by Russians. On May 23, 1915, a detachment of Russian soldiers occupied the town of Van, thus bringing the eagerly expected relief to the Armenians, who were besieged by the Turks — besieged in their own country by their own countrymen.[60] However, Russians were fighting agains Ottomans, and they did not control of the country side. The only power left in the country side was Armenian civilian forces.

General Yudenich received the keys to the city and citadel after his arrival. He confirmed the Armenian provisional government. Aram Manougian became the governor. Armenakis Yekarian became the police chief. Fighting shifted farther west for the rest of the summer with the city of Van secure.[55] Upon the arrival of the Russians the Turks retreated west of Lake Van in the direction of Bitlis.

The bird’s eye view of the city in 1913 and 1915

City of Van neighborhood in closeup

[edit] Setback, August

Armenian refugees at Van[61]

Throughout June and July, as the conflicts moved toward east thousands of Armenians from Mush and other neighboring provinces flood into the city of Van. There were as many as 250,000 Armenians crowded into the city of Van.[62] This included many who broke away from the deportation columns as they passed the vicinity on their way to Mosul.[62] Before the crises city of Van had housed and fed no more than 50,000 people.

On June 5, the north shores of lake Van was devote of Turkish forces.[57] Russians were threatining moving toward Mush.[57] The Russian army moved its forces from Van province to the town of Malazgirt for a new offensive into Anatolia toward Mush. The losts taken by the 3rd Army created a salient in the southern flank, which created an opportunity for Russia.[57] However, this did not last long, and six weeks later, the Russian forces suffered reverses.

On July 11, Van province was assigned to the responsibility of the "Right Wing Group" of the 3rd Army, along the other southern provinces. Mirliva Abdulkerim Pasha assigned as the commander and Enver Pasha ordered this unit be an independent operational level from the 3rd Army. Mirliva Abdulkerim Pasha managed to stop the Russian advance by July 16.

On July 16, the Ottoman Army finilized pushing the Russian Army at Battle of Malazgirt (July 10 - 26, 1915) to its initial line. This followed the battle of Kara Killisse. As a result of the defeat, the Russians had to evacuate Van. Armen Garo, and his assistant, Khetcho, who died in July, 1915, on the shores of Lake Van, asked from General Abatzieff to permit the Armenian inhabitants to move with the Russian army toward Igdir. This request was rejected on the grounds that the army transports could not be performed soon enough with the refuges.[63] For eight continuous days during July, General Nikolaeff made the Armenian leaders remain idle. Russian General told them every day that he would not retreat under any circumstances, and that therefore it was entirely needless to remove the people.[63]

250,000 Armenians crowded into the city of Van included many who broke away from the deportation columns as they passed the vicinity on their way to Mosul.[62]

On July 18, General Nikolaeff sent a dispatch to Aram Manougian, and Sargis Mehrabyan (Vartan) for evacuation.[63] General Trokin was in the city at this time. He offered to evacuate the Armenian population to Russian territory through the north passages. General Trokin received a dispatch just after five hours leaving the city and returned back to make his exit through Persia.[64] This left the Armenian volunteers only defenders of the Armenian refugees. "The panic was indescribable. After a long resistance to Jevdet bey, after the city's liberation, after an establishment of an Armenian governorship, all was blighted."[62] Armenian civilian forces occupied the attention of four Turkish divisions and tens of thousands of Kurds during the retreat.[65] The battalions of Armenian volunteers took no active part in the battles of July. They were undertaking the heavy duty of rear guard work for the Russian army and the Armenian refugees in the district of Van.[63]

Refugess at the Mountain Passes, such as the Bargiri Pass

On August 4, Russian forces at Van that exit through Persia took into defense positions at the Bargiri, Saray and Hosap districts of Van province. The refugee group following the Russian forces interdicted by Kurdish forces while they crossed the mountain passes at north of Bargiri Pass. At Bargiri Pass Armenian refugess had major casualties. On refugess that passed to the other side were assisted by Armenian agencies.

On August 5, Russian forces which exit through Russia from Van was advanced 20 kilometers into the Russian territory followed by the Right Wing Group. Abdülkerim Paşa earlier asked for permission before leaving the van Province into Russian territory. Enver Paşa personally gave the order to advance up to of Eleşkirt and Karaköse and clean up the border region from all Russian elements.

Early August, nearly 200,000 refuges fleed behind the retreating Russian forces swarmed into Transcaucasia.[62] There were two major group of refuges that left the city. One group left with the protection of Armenian volunteers and other group tried to leave by their own means. Nearly 150,000 Armenian inhabitants were compelled to leave all their property at the mercy of the enemy's fire and flee toward Erivan under the protection of volunteers.[65] The refuges who had protection suffered a loss of 8,000 to 10,000 men, women, and children.[63] More than 5,000 refuges died in the fighting and tribal attacks at the mountain crossings. As many as 40,000 Armenians perishing during the flight.[62] The commander of Armenian volunteer units, claimed "If the Russian general had given an opportunity of seven or eight days to organize the retreat, it would have been possible to direct the people to Erivan without the loss of a single life.[63]

On September 29, the Ottoman Army left the city of Van after staying only roughly a month. They had to retreat once more from defeats suffered on the field. Some of the Armenian residents who were escaped to Transcaucasia returned.

On January 19 1916, the defeat at the Battle of Koprukoy brought the front line farther west from the province of Van. The Province of Van was under the Administration of Western Armenia until 1918. The conflicts between 1916-1918 were shifted to the north-east at battle of Mush and to the south-east at battle of Bitlis of the Van Province.

[edit] The last evacuation, 1918

1917, The church became the military headquarters

In 1917, the Russian Revolution of 1917 changed the situation in the region. The Russian armies began to disintegrate.[66] Van was completely cut off from the Allies. The British Army did not move very far beyond Baghdad in the Mesopotamian campaign.[66] Armenians of the Van attempted to hold their own.[66]

During 1918, British invited Armenians to hold out and picked officers and non-commissioned officers organized them under the command of Lionel Dunsterville at Baghdad.[66] It was named the Dunsterforce.[66] The military goal of Dunsterforce was to reach Caucasus via Persia.[66] It was planned to organize an army to be recruited from the Armenians and other pro-Ally elements that still existed in the Caucuses.[66] The Dunsterforce did not extend to Van. The Van Armenians were, however, joined by the Assyrians in defense.[66]

On March 3 1918, the Grand vizier Talat Pasha signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Russian SFSR. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border to be pulled back to prewar levels and the cities Batum, Kars, and Ardahan to be transferred to Ottoman Empire. Early in 1918 Ottoman 3rd Army moved to offense against Armenians. Mehmet Vehib Kacı Pasha executed the offensive in three wings. On the right wing, Van province was assigned to IV Corps. IV Corps assignment was to extend to Dogubeyazit.

In April, 1918, Armenians of Van resisted in Van one more time. On April 4, the city of Van changed hands. The total control of city of Van was on April 6, which followed by Dogubeyazit on April 14.[67] Armenians of Van were eventually forced to evacuate and withdraw from the province of Van. Armenians of Van retreated eastward toward the Persian Azerbaijan.[68] They made a stand near Dilman. They repulsed the Turks once there at Battle of Dilman (1915), but, on being attacked again, were compelled to retreat southward around Lake Urmiah.[68] In pursuit of the Van Armenians and mountaineer Assyrians, 3rd Army clashed (harrash) with Urmian Assyrians, which made them part of the refugees in their retreat southward toward Mesopotamia.[68]

During July, 1918 the British Army occupied the greater portion of Mesopotamia with the Mesopotamian Campaign, as well as a large part of Persian Azerbaijan with the Persian Campaign. Preparations were made for the establishment of a large camp for Armenians refugees near Bakubah, Iraq.[69]

In the first week of September, 1918, retreating Armenians of Van came to Bakubah refugee camp in parties of 1,000 or 2,000, partly by road and partly by train.[69] Many of them were suffering from dysentery, typhus and relapsing fever, and there was a certain amount of smallpox among the children.[69] There were many died along the road because of weakness and starvation.[69] All through September and the first half of October, until about 40,000 had been received in all.[69] Towards the end of September it was decided to raise four battalions from the Armenians on the lines of an Indian Infantry battalion.[70] 2nd Battalion was established by Van Armenians. 3rd Battalion was established by Armenians from other regions. The G.O.C. North Persian Force decided to locate 2nd Battalion to Senna. 3rd Battalion moved to Bijar.[70]

In October 30, 1918, the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros and the military operations ended.

[edit] Strength

After the disastrous depleetion of the 3rd Army in the battle of Sarikamis, the gendarmerie which originally charged with police duties among civilian populations transfared to the 3rd Army. The army tried to restore combat effectiveness. On February 24, 1915, Turks were forced to send the Harput, Diyarbakir, and Bitlis gendarmerie units to the city of van.[71] There were 52,000 Turkish forces existed in the Caucuses war zone in this period, and 75% was located at the northern war zone beyond the province of Van.[67] The Ottoman units in the Van province were Van Gendarmerie Division under the controlled of the Governor. Van Gendarmerie Division had also the Rafael de Nogale's artillery unit. 36th infantry Division was assembled from Mesopotamia with the order to control the southern part, near Lake Van.[57]The 1st Expeditory Force held the front to the south of Lake Van.[57]

The 3 Army units in Van province (June 4)[67]
Van gendarmerie Division 2,500
36th infantry Division 5,400
1st Expeditory Force 7,500
Bagdat Regiment 560
Total 15,960

A battalion named "butcher battalion (Turkish: kesab taburi)" numbering some 5,000 men.[72]

The Armenian defenders had 1,500 able bodied riflemen who were supplied with 300 rifles and 1,000 pistols and antique weapons.

[edit] Casualties

The first post war census was conducted in 1927. The province of Van's population density showed a sharp decline compared to neighboring provinces. There were only 43 Jews.[73]

On May 15, 1915, the Russian consul at the city of Van reported that 6,000 Armenians had been massacred at Van, which has been the scene of so many similar outrages during the last twenty years. [60]

Henry Morgenthau referring to Doctor Ussher, "after driving off the Turks, Russians cremated the bodies of Armenians who had been murdered in the province, with the result that 55,000 bodies were burned".[74] The systematic massacre of 25,000 Armenians in the Bashkala district, of whom less than 10 per cent, were said to have escaped, appeared to have been ordered.[75]

The Jews of Van also suffered during this period. 1914 Ottoman census claims there were no less then 1200 Jews in the province. It is assumed that most of them simply fled to Ottoman Mosul province, by the fact that they belong to the same. Post war statistic regarding Jews originate from 1927 census of the Republic of Turkey which stated 43 Jews were left in the region.[73]

[edit] Contemporaneous reports and reactions

Many western writers and historians have concluded that the Turks themselves delibrately instigated the armed Armenian Resistance by enforcing the conditions on their subjects.[51] The United States, Germany and Austria-Hungary, recorded and documented the Van Resistance:

"I have told this story of the "Revolution" in Van not only because it marked the first stage in this organized attempt to wipe out a whole nation, but because these events are always brought forward by the Turks as a justification of their subsequent crimes. As I shall relate, Enver, Talaat, and the rest, when I appealed to them in behalf of the Armenians, invariably instanced the "revolutionists" of Van as a sample of Armenian treachery. The famous "Revolution," as this recital shows, was merely the determination of the Armenians to save their women's honour and their own lives, after the Turks, by massacring thousands of their neighbours, had shown them the fate that awaited them."

—Henry Morgenthau, Sr., Ambassador Morgenthau's Story

On April 15, 1915, the German ambassador in Constantinople, reported:

Armenians have given up their ideas of a revolution since the introduction of the Constitution and that there is no organization for such a revolt".[76]

—Hans Freiherr von Wangenheim

[edit] Atrocities at Van Province

Most of killings were attributed to Circassian and Kurds, although some reported Turkish troops. Rafael De Nogales, a Venezuelan soldier fighting for the Turks, mentions in his memoirs that Ottoman officials had received orders to exterminate all Armenian males of twelve years of age and older. According to Ussher, on April 19, Jevdet issued an order throughout the Van province, which read: "The Armenians must be exterminated. If any Muslim protect a Christian, first, his house shall be burnt; then the Christian killed before his eyes, then his [the Muslim's] family and himself."[77] After the mobilization for the, Jevdet became the subordinate of 3rd Army under General Halil Kut. Halil Kut was a genuine military hero, who had the victory over the British at Kut al Amara.[78] His performance in Mesopotamia and in the offensive Caucasian campaigns in 1918 was excellent.[78] He was later accused of war crimes at Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919-20 against the Armenians during operations around the city of Van during the spring of 1915.[78]

[edit] Cultural references

The resistance occupy a significant place in Armenian national identity because it symbolize the Armenians’ will to resist. [79] The Ararat (film), directed, written, and co-produced by Atom Egoyan re-stages the events at Van. Ararat won several awards. To commemorate the defenders of the battle a memorial was created during the 1970s in Soviet Armenia in Agarak, Talin village. [80] The town populated by the emigrants from Van in 1920. Nerkin Bazmaberd located at the north of Agarak was also populated by the descends from refugees in 1915.

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ Morgenthau, 227
  2. ^ Balakian, 207
  3. ^ a b (Krikorian 1978, p. 34)
  4. ^ Values as printed on Image:Armenian population of Van province in 1896.png
  5. ^ a b Raymond H. Kevorkian and Paul B. Paboudjian, Les Arméniens dans l'Empire Ottoman à la vielle du génocide, Ed. ARHIS, Paris, 1992 see appendix, p60
  6. ^ Values as printed on Image:Proportions des populations en Asie Mineure statistique officielle d1914.png
  7. ^ Muslims and Minorities, Justin McCarthy, Ney York UNiversity Press, 1983, pp. 110-111
  8. ^ Memalik'i Osmaniye'nin 1330 Senesi Nüfus İstatistiĝi
  9. ^ Hines, Walter (1919). " The World's Work. Doubleday, Page & Company. http://books.google.com/books?id=8pOxaExnQ9kC&as_brr=1&pg=RA1-PA106&ci=34,260,481,269&source=bookclip".  in page 106
  10. ^ Walker, Christopher J. Armenia: The Survival of a Nation. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1990. p. 206
  11. ^ (Shaw 1977, pp. 239-241)
  12. ^ Justin McCarthy, Muslims and Minorities: The Population of Ottoman Anatolia and the End of the Empire, New York Univ Press, 1983. pages 110-111
  13. ^ (Krikorian 1978, p. 33)
  14. ^ a b (Montegue 1917, pp. 294)
  15. ^ (Hinterhoff 1984, p. 500)
  16. ^ (Erickson 2001, pp. 54)
  17. ^ (Shaw 1977, pp. 314-315)
  18. ^ The Hugh Chisholm, 1920, Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Company ltd., twelve edition p.198.
  19. ^ a b Avetoon Pesak Hacobian, 1917, Armenia and the War, p.77
  20. ^ a b (Pasdermadjian 1918, pp. 22)
  21. ^ Balakian. The Burning Tigris, p.200
  22. ^ a b (Pasdermadjian 1918, pp. 20)
  23. ^ a b c (Erickson 2001, pp. 63)
  24. ^ a b c (Erickson 2001, pp. 64)
  25. ^ (Ussher 1917, p. 288)
  26. ^ a b (Ussher 1917, p. 233)
  27. ^ Richard G. Hovannisian, The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, 244
  28. ^ Walker, p.206
  29. ^ a b c d e (Erickson 2001, pp. 97)
  30. ^ Akcam, 199
  31. ^ (Erickson 2001, pp. 46)
  32. ^ (Erickson 2001, pp. 42)
  33. ^ (Erickson 2001, pp. 53)
  34. ^ David Gaunt; Massacres, Resistance, Protectors page 57
  35. ^ (Ussher 1917, p. 233)
  36. ^ a b c (Erickson 2001, pp. 98)
  37. ^ Dadrian, Vahakn,"The Armenian Question and the Wartime Fate of the Armenians as Documented by the Officials of the Ottoman Empire's World War I Allies: Germany and Austria-Hungary", International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 34, No. 1 (Feb., 2002), pp. 59-85.
  38. ^ Erickson, Ordered to Die,99-100
  39. ^ (Ussher 1917, pp. 254)
  40. ^ Ibid
  41. ^ Blue Book, British Parliament - 1916 p. 35
  42. ^ Blue Book, British Parliament - 1916 p. 35
  43. ^ (Ussher 1917, p. 251)
  44. ^ Brumlik, Micha. Völkermord und Kriegsverbrechen in der ersten Hälfte des 20, p.129. Campus Verlag, 2004. ISBN 3593372827
  45. ^ (Ussher 1917, p. 239)
  46. ^ a b Arnold Toynbee, "The Treatment of Armenians", p. 109.
  47. ^ Arnold Toynbee, "The Treatment of Armenians", p. 38.
  48. ^ Hovannisian, "The Armenian people", page 251.
  49. ^ (Ussher 1917, p. 236)
  50. ^ a b c (Montegue 1917, pp. 298)
  51. ^ a b c (Erickson 2001, pp. 99)
  52. ^ Walker, Survival, 207.
  53. ^ a b c (Ussher 1917, p. 286)
  54. ^ (Ussher 1917, p. 254)
  55. ^ a b (Hinterhoff 1984, pp. 1153–1157)
  56. ^ (Montegue 1917, pp. 275)
  57. ^ a b c d e f g h (Erickson 2001, pp. 105)
  58. ^ Verzhine Svazlyan, Armenian massacres, 1915-1923, page 43
  59. ^ Hovannisian, Richard G.,(1967) Armenia on the Road to Independence, 1918. University of California Press
  60. ^ a b Francis Joseph, The Story of the Great War, page 478
  61. ^ (Morgenthau 1917, p. 314)
  62. ^ a b c d e f (Shaw 1977, pp. 316)
  63. ^ a b c d e f (Pasdermadjian 1918, pp. 30)
  64. ^ (Ussher 1917, p. 312)
  65. ^ a b (Pasdermadjian 1918, pp. 24)
  66. ^ a b c d e f g h (Northcote 1922, pp. 788)
  67. ^ a b c (Erickson 2001, pp. 106)
  68. ^ a b c (Northcote 1922, pp. 789)
  69. ^ a b c d e (Northcote 1922, pp. 790)
  70. ^ a b (Austin 1920, pp. 13)
  71. ^ (Erickson 2001, pp. 62)
  72. ^ Walker. Survival, p. 211.
  73. ^ a b Kara Schemi, Turcs ey Armeniens, page 61
  74. ^ (Morgenthau 1917, p. 229)
  75. ^ (Halsey 1919, pp. 45)
  76. ^ Wolfgang & Sigrid Gust, "The Armenian Genocide during the First World War", 2005
  77. ^ (Ussher 1917, p. 244)
  78. ^ a b c (Erickson 2001, pp. 219)
  79. ^ Razmik Panossian, Armenian Genocide Insert, Vol. 73, No. 16, April 21, 2007
  80. ^ Self-defense Battle Memorial of Artsiv Vaspurakan in Agarak village, Armenia

[edit] Bibliography

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