Emergency management

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Emergency management (or disaster management) is the discipline of dealing with and avoiding risks.[1] It is a discipline that involves preparing for disaster before it happens, disaster response (e.g. emergency evacuation, quarantine, mass decontamination, etc.), as well as supporting, and rebuilding society after natural or human-made disasters have occurred. In general, any Emergency management is the continuous process by which all individuals, groups, and communities manage hazards in an effort to avoid or ameliorate the impact of disasters resulting from the hazards. Actions taken depend in part on perceptions of risk of those exposed.[2] Effective emergency management relies on thorough integration of emergency plans at all levels of government and non-government involvement. Activities at each level (individual, group, community) affect the other levels. It is common to place the responsibility for governmental emergency management with the institutions for civil defense or within the conventional structure of the emergency services. In the private sector, emergency management is sometimes referred to as business continuity planning.

Emergency Management is one of a number of terms which, since the end of the Cold War, have largely replaced Civil defense, whose original focus was protecting civilians from military attack. Modern thinking focuses on a more general intent to protect the civilian population in times of peace as well as in times of war. Another current term, Civil Protection is widely used within the European Union and refers to government-approved systems and resources whose task is to protect the civilian population, primarily in the event of natural and human-made disasters. Within EU countries the term Crisis Management emphasises the political and security dimension rather than measures to satisfy the immediate needs of the civilian population.[citation needed] The academic trend is towards using the more comprehensive term disaster risk reduction, particularly for emergency management in a development management context.

[edit] Phases and professional activities

The nature of emergency management is highly dependent on economic and social conditions local to the emergency, or disaster. This is true to the extent that some disaster relief experts such as Fred Cuny have noted that in a sense the only real disasters are economic. [3] Experts, such as Cuny, have long noted that the cycle of emergency management must include long-term work on infrastructure, public awareness, and even human justice issues. This is particularly important in developing nations. The process of emergency management involves four phases: mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery.

A graphic representation of the four phases in emergency management.
A graphic representation of the four phases in emergency management.

[edit] Mitigation

Mitigation efforts attempt to prevent hazards from developing into disasters altogether, or to reduce the effects of disasters when they occur. The mitigation phase differs from the other phases because it focuses on long-term measures for reducing or eliminating risk.[1] The implementation of mitigation strategies can be considered a part of the recovery process if applied after a disaster occurs.[1] However, even if applied as part of recovery efforts, actions that reduce or eliminate risk over time are still considered mitigation efforts.[1]

Mitigative measures can be structural or non-structural. Structural measures use technological solutions, like flood levees. Non-structural measures include legislation, land-use planning (e.g. the designation of nonessential land like parks to be used as flood zones), and insurance. Mitigation is the most cost-efficient method for reducing the impact of hazards. However, mitigation is not always suitable and structural mitigation in particular may have adverse effects on the ecosystem.

A precursor activity to the mitigation is the identification of risks. Physical risk assessment refers to the process of identifying and evaluating hazards.[1] In risk assessment, various hazards (e.g. earthquakes, floods, riots) within a certain area are identified. Each hazard poses a risk to the population within the area assessed.[2] The hazard-specific risk (Rh) combines both the probability and the level of impact of a specific hazard. The equation below gives that the hazard times the populations’ vulnerability to that hazard produce a risk. Catastrophe modeling tools are used to support the calculation. The higher the risk, the more urgent that the hazard specific vulnerabilities are targeted by mitigation and preparedness efforts. However, if there is no vulnerability there will be no risk, e.g. an earthquake occurring in a desert where nobody lives.

\mathbf{R_h} = \mathbf{H} \times \mathbf{V_h} \,

[edit] Preparedness

In the preparedness phase, emergency managers develop plans of action for when the disaster strikes. Common preparedness measures include the

An efficient preparedness measure is an emergency operations center (EOC) combined with a practiced region-wide doctrine for managing emergencies. Another preparedness measure is to develop a volunteer response capability among civilian populations. Since, volunteer response is not as predictable and planable as professional response, volunteers are most effectively deployed on the periphery of an emergency.

Another aspect of preparedness is casualty prediction, the study of how many deaths or injuries to expect for a given kind of event. This gives planners an idea of what resources need to be in place to respond to a particular kind of event.

[edit] Response

The response phase includes the mobilization of the necessary emergency services and first responders in the disaster area. This is likely to include a first wave of core emergency services, such as firefighters, police and ambulance crews. They may be supported by a number of secondary emergency services, such as specialist rescue teams.

In addition volunteers and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as the local Red Cross branch or St. John Ambulance may provide immediate practical assistance, from first aid provision to providing tea and coffee. A well rehearsed emergency plan developed as part of the preparedness phase enables efficient coordination of rescue efforts.[4] Emergency plan rehearsal is essential to achieve optimal output with limited resources. In the response phase, medical assets will be used in accordance with the appropriate triage of the affected victims.

Where required, search and rescue efforts commence at an early stage. Depending on injuries sustained by the victim, outside temperature, and victim access to air and water, the vast majority of those affected by a disaster will die within 72 hours after impact.[5]

Individuals are often compelled to volunteer directly after a disaster. Volunteers can be both a help and a hindrance to emergency management and other relief agencies.

[edit] Recovery

The aim of the recovery phase is to restore the affected area to its previous state. It differs from the response phase in its focus; recovery efforts are concerned with issues and decisions that must be made after immediate needs are addressed.[1] Recovery efforts are primarily concerned with actions that involve rebuilding destroyed property, re-employment, and the repair of other essential infrastructure.[1] An important aspect of effective recovery efforts is taking advantage of a ‘window of opportunity’[4] for the implementation of mitigative measures that might otherwise be unpopular. Citizens of the affected area are more likely to accept more mitigative changes when a recent disaster is in fresh memory.

In the United States, the National Response Plan dictates how the resources provided by the Homeland Security Act of 2002 will be used in recovery efforts.[1] It is the Federal government that often provides the most technical and financial assistance for recovery efforts in the United States.[1]

[edit] Phases and personal activities

[edit] Mitigation

Personal mitigation is mainly about knowing and avoiding unnecessary risks. This includes an assessment of possible risks to personal/family health and to personal property.

One example of mitigation would be to avoid buying property that is exposed to hazards, e.g. in a flood plain, in areas of subsidence or landslides. Homeowners may not be aware of a property being exposed to a hazard until it strikes. However, specialists can be hired to conduct risk identification and assessment surveys. Purchase of insurance covering the most prominent identified risks is a common measure.

Personal structural mitigation in earthquake prone areas includes installation of an Earthquake Valve to instantly shut off the natural gas supply to a property, seismic retrofits of property and the securing of items inside a building to enhance household seismic safety. The latter may include the mounting of furniture, refrigerators, water heaters and breakables to the walls, and the addition of cabinet latches. In flood prone areas houses can be built on poles, as in much of southern Asia. In areas prone to prolonged electricity black-outs installation of a generator would be an example of an optimal structural mitigation measure. The construction of storm cellars and fallout shelters are further examples of personal mitigative actions.

[edit] Preparedness

See also hurricane preparedness and earthquake preparedness

Unlike mitigation activities, which are aimed at preventing a disaster from occurring, personal preparedness focuses on preparing equipment and procedures for use when a disaster occurs, i.e. planning. Preparedness measures can take many forms including the construction of shelters, installation of warning devices, creation of back-up life-line services (e.g. power, water, sewage), and rehearsing evacuation plans. Two simple measures can help prepare the individual for sitting out the event or evacuating, as necessary. For evacuation, a disaster supplies kit may be prepared and for sheltering purposes a stockpile of supplies may be created. The preparation of a survival kit, commonly referred to as a "72-hour kit", is often advocated by authorities. These kits may include food, medicine, flashlights, candles and money.[6]

[edit] Response

The response phase of an emergency may commence with search and rescue but in all cases the focus will quickly turn to fulfilling the basic humanitarian needs of the affected population. This assistance may be provided by national or international agencies and organisations. Effective coordination of disaster assistance is often crucial, particularly when many organisations respond and local emergency management agency (LEMA) capacity has been exceeded by the demand or diminished by the disaster itself.

On a personal level the response can take the shape either of a home confinement or an evacuation. In a home confinement a family would be prepared to fend for themselves in their home for many days without any form of outside support. In an evacuation, a family leaves the area by automobile (or other mode of transportation) taking with them the maximum amount of supplies they can carry, possibly including a tent for shelter. If mechanical transportation is not available, evacuation on foot would ideally include carrying at least three days of supplies and rain-tight bedding, a tarpaulin and a bedroll of blankets being the minimum.

[edit] Recovery

The recovery phase starts after the immediate threat to human life has subsided. During reconstruction it is recommended to consider the location or construction material of the property.

The most extreme home confinement scenarios include war, famine and severe epidemics and may last a year or more. Then recovery will take place inside the home. Planners for these events usually buy bulk foods and appropriate storage and preparation equipment, and eat the food as part of normal life. A simple balanced diet can be constructed from vitamin pills, whole-meal wheat, beans, dried milk, corn, and cooking oil.[7] One should add vegetables, fruits, spices and meats, both prepared and fresh-gardened, when possible.

[edit] As a profession

Emergency managers are trained in a wide variety of disciplines that support them through out the emergency life-cycle. Professional emergency managers can focus on government and community preparedness (Continuity of Operations/Continuity of Government Planning), or private business preparedness (Business Continuity Management Planning). Training is provided by local, state, federal and private organizations and ranges from public information and media relations to high-level incident command and tactical skills such as studying a terrorist bombing site or controlling an emergency scene.

In the past, the field of emergency management has been populated mostly by people with a military or first responder background. Currently, the population in the field has become more diverse, with many experts coming from a variety of backgrounds and having no military or first responder history at all. Educational opportunities are increasing for those seeking undergraduate and graduate degrees in emergency management or a related field.

Professional certifications such as Certified Emergency Manager (CEM) and Certified Business Continuity Professional (CBCP) are becoming more common as the need for high professional standards is recognized by the emergency management community, especially in the United States.

[edit] Tools

In recent years the continuity feature of emergency management has resulted in a new concept, Emergency Management Information Systems (EMIS). For continuity and interoperability between emergency management stakeholders, EMIS supports the emergency management process by providing an infrastructure that integrates emergency plans at all levels of government and non-government involvement and by utilizing the management of all related resources (including human and other resources) for all four phases of emergencies.

[edit] Within other professions

Practitioners emergency management (disaster preparedness) come from an increasing variety of backgrounds as the field matures. Professionals from memory institutions (e.g., museums, historical societies, libraries, and archives) are dedicated to preserving cultural heritage—objects and records contained in their collections. This has been a major component within these fields, but now there is a heightened awareness following the events on 9/11 and the hurricanes in 2005.

To increase the opportunity for a successful recovery of valuable records, a well-established and thoroughly tested plan must be developed. This task requires the cooperation of a well-organized committee led by an experienced chairperson. [8] Professional associations schedule regular workshops and hold focus sessions at annual conferences to keep individuals up to date with tools and resources in practice.

[edit] Tools

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The joint efforts of professional associations and cultural heritage institutions have resulted in the development of tools to assist professionals in preparing disaster and recovery plans. The tools are available to users as well as templates created by existing libraries and archives that can be helpful to a committee preparing a disaster plan or updating an existing plan.

dPlan, The Online Disaster Planning Tool, developed in partnership between the Northeast Document Conservation Center (NEDCC) and Massachusetts Board of Library Commissioners (MBLC) is free and fairly simple to use. Users log-in to complete the comprehensive interactive form, the information is saved and stored, then, a hardcopy (PDF file) can be printed. The hardcopy should be readily available in case of emergency. [9]

With dPlan, there are seven sections including: Institutional Information; Prevention; Response and Recovery; Supplies and Services; Scope and Goals; Staff Training; Distribution, Review and Updating. It does not have to be completed in one sitting. The Data Collection Form can be printed in advance and the template can be filled in by hand before entering the data online. Or, it is possible to enter the data online and save it along the way. The 129-page document may seem daunting, but will prove to be invaluable. To reduce the amount of time needed to complete the form, check boxes and pull-down menus are provided. A scale of 1 to 4 is (one being serious risk and four not a risk at all) is used to measure conditions. The scale forces the user to make a choice resulting in a more effective reading. dPlan offers consistency in plans through vocabulary and format, yet an upload file feature allows for flexibility—necessary attachments and/or appendices may be added to supplement the plan.

The Emergency Response and Salvage Wheel is another useful tool. It was produced by the Heritage Emergency National Task Force on Emergency Response. The design of the waterproof, hand-held tool provides essential information in an easy to read format. The two-sided disc outlines action steps and salvage steps for emergency situations, including a section on electronic records. It is also available in Spanish. [10]

The Disaster Mitigation Planning Assistance Website. is a Website created by Michigan State University Libraries, the Center for Great Lakes Culture and the California Preservation Program. It is possible to search resources based on individual needs. [11] Pull down menus filter results and an export feature makes it possible to download the data to an (CSV) Excel document. The document may contain company names, addresses, phone numbers, email addresses, and URL addresses for the corresponding service, supplier, or expert on file. It is also possible to submit resource as well as view sample plans from this Website.

There are workbooks from libraries and archives with published disaster plans. Many can be found online, but only two will be named at this time. The first one is New York University Library’s Disaster Plan Workbook. A committee of ten works in partnership with the Library’s Preservation Department to administer the plan. It contains seven chapters with forms, priorities and procedures along with a table of contents, appendices—divided into six sections—and index. "Instructions in the workbook provide undamaging salvage methods for all types of library materials, including a list of supplies needed for each. Consultants, specialists, hardware stores and staff telephone trees are listed." [12] The workbook is displayed using HTML for navigation between the pages by clicking. It is not possible to type into the pages of the Workbook, but the pages may be printed and customized with pertinent information of the library or archive using this format.

Western New York Disaster Preparedness and Recovery Manual for Libraries and Archives is available for download as a PDF document. This manual provides a number of worksheets to be completed by the user. It contains a glossary of terms to ensure those involved in the planning and executing process are speaking the same language. A section on "Protection" lists emergency supplies; decisions to make when assembling in-house disaster response teams; and types of alarms and systems to warn against smoke and fire. Salvaging techniques and rehabilitation are also covered extensively. It is not limited to paper materials but also includes film, magnetic and digital media. [13]

[edit] Further reading

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). "Emergency Management Guide for Business & Industry." FEMA 141, (.PDF). 2007. Washington, D.C.: FEMA, 18 May 2006.

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). "NFPA 909: Code for the Protection of Cultural Resources Properties—Museums, Libraries, and Places of Worship." 2005 ed. Quincy, Mass.: NFPA, 2005.

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). "NFPA 1600: Standard on Disaster/Emergency Management and Business Continuity Programs." 2007 ed. Quincy, Mass.: NFPA, 2007.

[edit] International organizations

[edit] International Association of Emergency Managers

The International Association of Emergency Managers (IAEM) is a non-profit educational organization dedicated to promoting the goals of saving lives and protecting property during emergencies and disasters. The mission of IAEM is to serve its members by providing information, networking and professional opportunities, and to advance the emergency management profession.

[edit] Red Cross/Red Crescent

National Red Cross/Red Crescent societies often have pivotal roles in responding to emergencies. Additionally, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC, or "The Federation") may deploy assessment teams to the affected country. They specialize in the recovery component of the emergency management framework.

[edit] United Nations

Within the United Nations system responsibility for emergency response rests with the Resident Coordinator within the affected country. However, in practice international response will be coordinated, if requested by the affected country’s government, by the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN-OCHA), by deploying a UN Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team.

[edit] World Bank

Since 1980, the World Bank has approved more than 500 operations related to disaster management, amounting to more than US$40 billion. These include post-disaster reconstruction projects, as well as projects with components aimed at preventing and mitigating disaster impacts, in countries such as Argentina, Bangladesh, Colombia, Haiti, India, Mexcio, Turkey and Vietnam to name only a few.[14]

Common areas of focus for prevention and mitigation projects include forest fire prevention measures, such as early warning measures and education campaigns to discourage farmers from slash and burn agriculture that ignites forest fires; early-warning systems for hurricanes; flood prevention mechanisms, ranging from shore protection and terracing in rural areas to adaptation of production; and earthquake-prone construction.[15]

In a joint with Columbia University under the umbrella of the ProVention Consortium the World Bank has established A Global Risk Analysis of Natural Disaster Hotspots.[16]

In June 2006, the World Bank established the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR), a longer term partnership with other aid donors to reduce disaster losses by mainstreaming disaster risk reduction in development, in support of the Hyogo Framework of Action. The facility helps developing countries fund development projects and programs that enhance local capacities for disaster prevention and emergency preparedness.[17]

[edit] National organisations

[edit] Australia

The key federal coordinating and advisory body for emergency management in Australia is Emergency Management Australia (EMA). Each state has its own State Emergency Service. The Emergency Call Service provides a national 000 emergency telephone number to contact state Police, Fire and Ambulance services. Arrangements are in place for state and federal cooperation.

[edit] India

The Indian government spends a lot in managing disasters through National Disaster Management of India under the Ministry of Home affairs. There has been a shift from response and recovery to strategic risk management and reduction, and from a government-centred approach to decentralized community participation[citation needed].

Recently the Government has formed the Emergency Management and Research Institute (EMRI).

[edit] Canada

Public Safety Canada (PSC) is Canada’s national emergency management agency. Each province is required to set up their Emergency Management Organizations.

PSC coordinates and supports the efforts of federal organizations ensuring national security and the safety of Canadians. They also work with other levels of government, first responders, community groups, the private sector (operators of critical infrastructure) and other nations.

PSC’s work is based on a wide range of policies and legislation through the Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Act which defines the powers, duties and functions of PSC are outlined. Other acts are specific to fields such as corrections, emergency management, law enforcement, and national security.

[edit] Provincial EMOs

[edit] Germany

In Germany the Federal Government controls the German Katastrophenschutz (disaster relief) and Zivilschutz (civil protection) programs. The local units of German fire department and the Technisches Hilfswerk (Federal Agency for Technical Relief, THW) are part of these programs. The German Armed Forces (Bundeswehr), the German Federal Police and the 16 state police forces (Länderpolizei) all have been deployed for disaster relief operations. Besides the German Red Cross [1] and its regional sister organisation, the Bavarian Red Cross, humanitarian help is dispensed by the Johanniter-Unfallhilfe [2], the German equivalent of the St. John's Ambulance, the Malteser-Hilfsdienst [3], the Arbeiter-Samariter-Bund [4], to cite the largest relief organisation that are equipped for large-scale emergencies. Command and control are provided by mobile municipal headquarter units. For more details see the article at [5]

[edit] New Zealand

In New Zealand the Ministry of Civil Defence & Emergency Management (MCDEM) has statutory authority for managing any state of emergency declared by the central government. Local government bodies such as city and regional councils have their own emergency management agencies to manage localised states of emergency, but these all defer to the MCDEM in the event of a national state of emergency. The Wellington Emergency Management Office (WEMO) occupies a purpose built building with its own water, electricity, communications and sewerage facilities to ensure continued operations in the event of an emergency or disaster.

[edit] Russia

In Russia the Ministry of Emergency Situations (EMERCOM) is engaged in fire fighting, Civil Defense, Search and Rescue, including rescue services after natural and human-made disasters.

[edit] United Kingdom

The United Kingdom adjusted its focus on emergency management following the 2000 UK fuel protests, severe UK flooding in the same year and the 2001 United Kingdom foot-and-mouth crisis. This resulted in the creation of the Civil Contingencies Act 2004 (CCA) which legislated the responsibilities of all category one responders regarding an emergency response. The CCA is managed by the Civil Contingencies Secretariat through Regional Resilience Forums and at the local authority level.

Disaster Management training is generally conducted at the local level by the organisations involved in any response. This is consolidated through professional courses that can be undertaken at the Emergency Planning College. Furthemore diplomas and undergraduate qualifications can be gained throughout the country - the first course of this type was carried out by Coventry University in 1994. Institute of Emergency Management is a charity organisation, established in 1996, to provide consulting services for the government, media and commercial sectors.

The Professional Society for Emergency Planners is the Emergency Planning Society.

The UK’s largest ever emergency exercise was carried out on 20 May 2007 near Belfast, Northern Ireland, and involved the scenario of a plane crash landing at Belfast International Airport. Staff from five hospitals and three airports participated in the drill, and almost 150 international observers assessed its effectiveness.[18]

[edit] United States

Under the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is lead agency for emergency management. The HAZUS software package developed by FEMA is central in the risk assessment process in the country. The United States and its territories are covered by one of ten regions for FEMA’s emergency management purposes. Tribal, state, county and local governments develop emergency management programs/departments and operate hierarchially within each region. Emergencies are managed at the most-local level possible, utilizing mutual aid agreements with adjacent jurisdictions. If the emergency is terrorist related or if declared an "Incident of National Significance", the Secretary of Homeland Security will initiate the National Response Framework (NRF). Under this plan the involvement of federal resources will be made possible, integrating in with the local, county, state, or tribal entities. Management will continue to be handled at the lowest possible level utilizing the National Incident Management System (NIMS).

The Citizen Corps is an organization of volunteer service programs, administered locally and coordinated nationally by DHS, which seek to mitigate disaster and prepare the population for emergency response through public education, training, and outreach. Community Emergency Response Teams are a Citizen Corps program focused on disaster preparedness and teaching basic disaster response skills. These volunteer teams are utilized to provide emergency support when disaster overwhelms the conventional emergency services.

[edit] Academic resources

[edit] Footnotes

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i Haddow, George D.; Jane A. Bullock (2004). Introduction to Emergency Management. Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-7689-2. 
  2. ^ a b Wisner, Ben; P. Blaikie, T. Cannon, and I. Davis (2004). At Risk - Natural hazards, people’s vulnerability and disasters. Wiltshire: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-25216-4. 
  3. ^ Cuny, Fred C. (1983). Disasters and Development. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 
  4. ^ a b Alexander, David (2002). Principles of Emergency planning and Management. Harpenden: Terra Publishing. ISBN 1-903544-10-6. 
  5. ^ Walker, Peter (1991). International Search and Rescue Teams, A League Discussion Paper. Geneva: League of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. 
  6. ^ 72 Hour Kits, an article from Home Security Guru
  7. ^ www.fema.gov Federal Emergency Management Agency Website
  8. ^ Buchanan, Sally. "Emergency preparedness." from Paul Banks and Roberta Pilette. Preservation Issues and Planning. Chicago: American Library Association, 2000. 159-165. ISBN 978-0-8389-0776-4
  9. ^ dPlan. Accessed December 3, 2007
  10. ^ Heritage Preservation. Accessed December 3, 2007
  11. ^ The Disaster Mitigation Planning Assistance Website. Accessed December 8, 2007
  12. ^ New York University Libraries. Accessed December 3, 2007
  13. ^ Western New York Library Resource Center (WNYLRC). Accessed December 3, 2007
  14. ^ List of World Bank projects with disaster management components and World Bank Disaster Risk Management Projects
  15. ^ World Bank Disaster Risk Management Projects
  16. ^ Natural Disaster Hotspots
  17. ^ Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery
  18. ^ Mock plane crash tests NI crews, BBC News, May 20, 2007

[edit] See also

Amateur Radio operators may help provide emergency communications in the event of an Emergency:

[edit] External links

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