Crucifixion of Jesus

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The crucifixion of Jesus is an event recorded in all four gospels (Matthew 27:33-44; Mark 15:22-32; Luke 23:33-43; John 19:17-30) which takes place after his arrest and trial and includes his scourging, crucifixion on the cross, and burial. In Christian theology, the death of Jesus by crucifixion is a core event on which much teaching depends, representing a critical aspect of the doctrine of salvation, portraying the suffering and death of the Messiah as necessary for the forgiveness of sins. According to the New Testament, Jesus was resurrected after three days and appeared to his disciples over a 40-day period before ascending to heaven.^[1]

Contents 1 Overview 2 Records of the crucifixion 2.1 Gospel narratives 2.2 Other records 3 Date and place of the crucifixion 3.1 Date of the crucifixion 3.2 Path to the crucifixion 3.3 Place of the crucifixion 4 Last words of Jesus 5 Phenomena during the crucifixion 5.1 Darkness 5.2 Temple veil torn 5.3 Earthquakes and resurrections 6 Medical aspects of the crucifixion 7 Death of Jesus: Theological significance 7.1 Atonement 8 References 9 Further reading 10 See also 11 External links

[edit] Overview

See also: Mark 15

Following the Last Supper with his disciples, Jesus was arrested in Gethsemane and forced to stand trial before the Sanhedrin, Pontius Pilate, and Herod Antipas before being handed over for crucifixion. After being flogged, Jesus was mocked by Roman soldiers as the "King of the Jews", who also beat him and spat on him after clothing him with a purple robe and a placing a crown of thorns on his head. Jesus then had to make his way through Jerusalem to the place of his crucifixion, a route traditionally called Via Dolorosa.

Once at Golgotha, Jesus was stripped and nailed by his hands to the beam and hung for three hours between two convicted thieves. During this time, the soldiers affixed a sign at the top stating "King of the Jews" in at least three languages, divided his garments and cast lots for his seamless robe, and offered him wine mixed with gall to drink, before eventually piercing his side with a spear to be certain that he had died. The Bible records seven statements that Jesus made while he was on the cross, as well as several supernatural events that occurred. Following his death, his body was removed from the cross by Joseph of Arimathea and buried in a rock-hewn tomb, with Nicodemus assisting.

[edit] Records of the crucifixion

See also: Historical Jesus

All four Gospels record in great detail the events surrounding the crucifixion so as to leave little room to doubt its historicity. That Jesus was crucified is a well-attested event of Roman history.^[2] Furthermore, modern archaeological discoveries have all been consistent with the details provided in the Gospel accounts as an accurate portrayal of Roman crucifixion.

[edit] Gospel narratives

The earliest detailed historical narrative accounts of the death of Jesus are contained in the four canonical gospels: Matthew 27, Mark 15, Luke 23, and John 19. There are other more implicit references in the New Testament epistles.

According to all four gospels, Jesus was brought to Golgotha^[3] and crucified with two thieves,^[4] with the charge of claiming to be "King of the Jews" written by Pilate,^[5] and the soldiers dividing his clothes^[6] before he bowed his head and died.^[7] Following his death, Joseph of Arimathea requested the body from Pilate,^[8] which he then placed in a new garden tomb.^[9]

The three synoptic gospels provide further details of Simon of Cyrene bearing the cross,^[10] the multitude mocking Jesus^[11] along with the thieves,^[12] darkness from the 6th to the 9th hour,^[13] and the temple veil being torn from top to bottom.^[14] The synoptics also record several witnesses, including the centurion who glorified God,^[15] and the women who watched from a distance^[16] and were present during the burial.^[17]

Luke is the only gospel writer to omit the detail of sour wine mix that was offered to Jesus on a reed,^[18] while only Mark and John record Joseph actually taking the body down off the cross.^[19]

There are several details that are only found in one of the gospel accounts. For instance, only Matthew's gospel mentions the earthquake and resurrected saints and the fact that Roman soldiers were assigned to guard the tomb,^[20] while Mark is the only one to record the actual time of the crucifixion (the third hour, or 9 am) and the Centurion's report of Jesus' death.^[21] Luke’s unique contributions to the narrative include Jesus' words to the women who were mourning, one criminal's rebuke of the other, the reaction of the multitudes who left "beating their breasts", and the women preparing spices and ointments before resting on the Sabbath.^[22] John, providing the only first-hand account, is also the only one to relay the request that the legs be broken and the soldier’s subsequent piercing of Jesus' side (as fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy), as well as the fact that Nicodemus assisted Joseph with burial.^[23]

[edit] Other records

See also: Josephus on Jesus

Since crucifixion was a common punishment for first century Jews thought to be traitors against Rome, it is not surprising that only a few secular historians record the event (and then without much commentary).^[24] For instance, Roman historian Tacitus, in his Annals (A.D. 55), mentions only in passing that "Christus...suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators..."^[25]

Additionally, during the first century, Jewish historian Josephus who survived and recorded the Destruction of Jerusalem in 70 and whose works give an important insight into first-century Judaism in a disputed passage^[26] records:

Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, if it be lawful to call him a man; for he was a doer of wonderful works, a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles. He was [the] Christ. And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross, those that loved him at the first did not forsake him; for he appeared to them alive again the third day; as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him. And the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day.

—Josephus , Antiquities of the Jews - XVIII, 3:8-10

Another possible Jewish reference to the crucifixion ("hanging" cf. Luk 23:39; Gal 3:13) is found in the Babylonian Talmud:

On the eve of the Passover Yeshu was hanged. For forty days before the execution took place, a herald went forth and cried, ‘He is going forth to be stoned because he has practised sorcery and enticed Israel to apostacy. Anyone who can say anything in his favour, let him come forward and plead on his behalf.’ But since nothing was brought forward in his favour he was hanged on the eve of the Passover!

—Soncino English Translation of the Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 43a

Although the question of the equivalence of the identities of Yeshu and Jesus has at times been debated, many historians agree that the above passage is likely to be about Jesus.^[27]

[edit] Date and place of the crucifixion

The exact time, date and place of the crucifixion have been the subject of a wide range of research and speculation. Although there is no final agreement among different groups of religious scholars and scentists on the exact time and place for the crucifixion, in recent years the views regarding the approximate date and location of the crucifixion have started to converge via independent methods of reasoning and verification. For instance, the year range given by some scripture scholars based on their methods of reasoning happens to roughly coincide with that obtained by Isaac Newton via the observation of the cycles of the moon, and later by modern astronomers.

[edit] Date of the crucifixion

See also: Chronology of Jesus

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Although there is no final consensus regarding the specific year or day, it is generally agreed that it occurred during the governorship of Pontius Pilate (between 26 and 36 AD) on a Friday at the beginning of Passover. John's Gospel implies that at the time of the trial the Jewish leaders had not yet eaten the Passover meal^[28] and explicitly states just prior to his sentencing "Now it was the day of Preparation of the Passover. It was about the sixth hour."^[29] This places the crucifixion on Nisan 14, since the law mandated the lamb had to be sacrificed between 3:00 pm and 5:00 pm and eaten before midnight on Nissan 14.^[30][31][32] This understanding fits well with Old Testament typology, in which Jesus entered Jerusalem to identify himself as the Paschal lamb on Monday, Nisan 10,^[33] was crucified and died at 3:00 Friday afternoon, just as the High Priest sacrificed the Paschal lamb,^[34] and rose before dawn on Sunday morning, Nisan 16, as a type of offering of the First Fruits.^[35]

The chronology presented by John is problematic in reconciling with the Synoptic passages and the tradition that the Last Supper was a Passover meal,^[36] placing the crucifixion instead on Nisan 15. However, the apparent contradiction may be resolved by postulating differences in how post-exilic Jews reckoned time.^[37] For Jesus and his disciples, the Passover could have begun at dawn Thursday, while for traditional Jews (following Leviticus 23:5), it would not have begun until dusk that same day.^[38][39] Another potential solution is that Jesus chose to celebrate the Passover meal a day early with his disciples.^[40][41][42]

On the scientific front, Isaac Newton was one of the first scientists to estimate the date of the crucifixion by calculating the relative visibility of the crescent of the new moon between the Hebrew and Julian calendars. Newton suggested the date as Friday, April 23, 34 AD.^[43] Yet, using similar computations, in 1990 astronomer Bradley Schaefer arrived at the date Friday, April 3, 33 AD.^[44] In 2003, using a computer program, astronomers Liviu Mircea and Tiberiu Oproiu estimated that Jesus died at 3 pm on Friday, April 3, 33 AD, and rose at 4 am on Sunday, April 5, dates that agree with Schaefer, but not with Newton.^[45][46] Writing in the Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1991, John Pratt argued that Newton's reasoning was effectively sound, but included a minor error at the end. Pratt suggested the year 33 AD as the accurate answer.^[47]

[edit] Path to the crucifixion

Main article: Via Dolorosa

The three Synoptic Gospels refer to a man called Simon of Cyrene who is made to carry the cross,^[48] while in the Gospel of John, Jesus is said to "bear" his own cross.^[49] However, John uses "bastazō" with a figurative meaning of enduring or sustaining.^[50] By contrast, the first two accounts use "airō" which literally means to raise, take up, or lift,^[51] and Luke uses "pherō̄" which literally means to bear, carry, or bring forth.^[52]

Luke's gospel also records an interaction between Jesus and the women among the crowd of mourners following him, quoting Jesus as saying "Daughters of Jerusalem, do not weep for me, but weep for yourselves and for your children. For behold, the days are coming when they will say, 'Blessed are the barren and the wombs that never bore and the breasts that never nursed!' Then they will begin to say to the mountains, 'Fall on us,' and to the hills, 'Cover us.' For if they do these things when the wood is green, what will happen when it is dry?"^[53]

Traditionally, the path that Jesus took is called Via Dolorosa (Latin for "Way of Grief" or "Way of Suffering") and is a street in the Old City of Jerusalem. It is marked by nine of the fourteen Stations of the Cross. The last five stations are inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

There is no reference to Saint Veronica in the Gospels. But according to the Acta Sanctorum published by the Bollandists, Saint Veronica was a pious woman of Jerusalem who, moved with pity as Jesus carried his cross to Golgotha, gave him her veil that he might wipe his forehead.^{[citation needed]} Jesus reportedly accepted the offering and after using it handed it back to her, the image of his face miraculously impressed upon it. This reported image then became known as the Veil of Veronica (in Italian as the Volto Santo) and was the starting point for the devotions to the Holy Face of Jesus by Roman Catholics.^[54][55]

[edit] Place of the crucifixion

See also: Empty tomb

The precise location of the crucifixion remains a matter of conjecture, but the biblical accounts indicate that it would have been outside the city walls,^[56] accessible to passers-by,^[57] and observable from some distance away.^[58] Eusebius identified its location only as being north of Mount Zion,^[59] which is consistent with the two most popularly suggested sites of modern times.

Calvary is an English name derived from the Latin word for skull (calvaria), which is how Jerome translated the Aramaic word Gûlgaltâ which identifies the place where Jesus was crucified. Although the text does not indicate why it was so designated, several theories have been put forward. One is that as a place of public execution, Calvary may have been strewn with the skulls of abandoned victims (which would be contrary to Jewish burial traditions). Another is that Calvary is named after a nearby cemetery (which is consistent with both of the proposed modern sites). A third is that the name was derived from the physical contour, which would be more consistent with the singular use of the word, i.e. the place called "a skull". While often referred to as "Mount Calvary", it was more likely a small hill or rocky knoll.^[60]

The traditional site, inside what is now occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in the Christian Quarter of the Old City, has been attested since the 4th century. A second site (commonly referred to as Gordon’s Calvary), located further north of the Old City near a place popularly called the Garden Tomb, has been promoted since the 19th century, mostly by Protestants.

[edit] Last words of Jesus

Main article: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

The gospel writers record seven statements uttered by Jesus while he was on the cross:

• "Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do." (Luke 23:34)
• "Truly, I say to you, today you will be with me in Paradise." (Luke 23:43)
• "Woman, behold, your son!" (John 19:25-27)
• "E′li, E′li, la′ma sa‧bach‧tha′ni?" (Matthew 27:46; Mark 15:34) (Aramaic for "My God, My God, why have you forsaken me?")
• "I thirst." (John 19:28)
• "It is finished." (John 19:30)
• "Father, into your hands I commit my spirit!" (Luke 23:46)

[edit] Phenomena during the crucifixion

[edit] Darkness

Main article: Crucifixion eclipse

In the biblical narrative, while Jesus is hanging on the cross, the sky is "darkened for 3 hours," from the sixth to the ninth hour (noon to mid-afternoon). Both Roman orator Julius Africanus and Christian theologian Origen refer to Greek historian Phlegon as having written "with regard to the eclipse in the time of Tiberius Caesar, in whose reign Jesus appears to have been crucified, and the great earthquakes which then took place"^[61] Julius Africanus further refers to the writings of historian Thallus when ruling out the possibility of a solar eclipse: "This darkness Thallus, in the third book of his History, calls, as appears to me without reason, an eclipse of the sun. For the Hebrews celebrate the passover on the 14th day according to the moon, and the passion of our Saviour falls on the day before the passover; but an eclipse of the sun takes place only when the moon comes under the sun."^[62] A solar eclipse concurrent with a full moon is a scientific impossibility. Diogenes is said to have commented "Either the Deity Himself suffers at this moment, or sympathizes with one who does."^[63] Christian apologist Tertullian wrote "In the same hour, too, the light of day was withdrawn, when the sun at the very time was in his meridian blaze. Those who were not aware that this had been predicted about Christ, no doubt thought it an eclipse. You yourselves have the account of the world-portent still in your archives."^[64]

[edit] Temple veil torn

The synoptic gospels state that the veil of the temple was torn from top to bottom. According to Josephus, the curtain in Herod's temple would have been nearly 60 feet high and 4 inches thick. According to Hebrews 9:1-10, this curtain was representative of the separation between God and man, beyond which only the High Priest was permitted to pass, and then only once each year (cf. Exodus 30:10) to enter into God's presence and make atonement for the sins of Israel (Leviticus 16). Bible expositors agree that the rending of the veil is symbolic of Jesus establishing a new and living way of access to God (Hebrews 9:11-15).

Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion.

[edit] Earthquakes and resurrections

Matthew records that there were earthquakes, splitting rocks, and the graves of dead saints were opened (and subsequently resurrected after the resurrection of Jesus). The fate of these resurrected saints is never elaborated upon.^[65]

The synoptics report that the centurion in charge, witnessing these events said: "Truly this was the Son of God!" (Matthew 27:54); or "Truly this man was the Son of God!" (Mark 15:39); or "Certainly this man was innocent!" (Luke 23:47).

Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion.

[edit] Medical aspects of the crucifixion

The Gospel of John says that a soldier pierced Jesus' side, causing the flow of blood and water. Apologists claim that medical knowledge at the time would have only expected blood.^[66] Some scholars^[who?] have hypothesized the 'water' as pericardial effusion and pleural effusion, and maintain that this medical anomaly would have been a fact that the author of the Gospel of John would have been tempted to leave out, had he not been interested in accurate reporting. This flow of water suggests fatal heart trauma required to release pericardial fluid. Without pericardial fluid, the heart may become bruised over time (due to friction between the heart and the pericardium). (The pericardial fluid is not required for the heart to function; it merely acts as a lubricant.) Roman soldiers were trained with such diligence that it is not logical to assume that someone could have survived a piercing in this region of the body.^[67]

[edit] Death of Jesus: Theological significance

Main article: Atonement

The theological significance of death by crucifixion is at times discussed in terms of the cross being a curse. The Heidelberg Catechism suggests that the special meaning behind Jesus' death by crucifixion rather than some other method is that the believer is "assured that He took upon Himself the curse which lay on me, for a crucified one was cursed by God" (Q & A 39).

Similarly, Galatians 3:3 quotes Deuteronomy 21:23 in its assertion that Christ redeemed us from the curse of the law by becoming a curse for us, for it is written: "Cursed is everyone who is hung on a tree."

[edit] Atonement

Main article: Atonement

Jesus' death and resurrection underpin a variety of theological interpretations as to how salvation is granted to humanity. A common feature of all these interpretations is that they place greater emphasis on the death and resurrection than on his words.^[68]

To Christians, Jesus willingly sacrificed himself as an act of perfect obedience as a substitutionary atonement, a sacrifice of love which pleased God.^[69] Many modern branches of Christianity embrace substitutionary atonement as the central meaning of Jesus' death on the cross. These branches however have developed different theories of atonement. The Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholics incorporates substitutionary atonement as one (relatively minor) element of a single doctrine of the Cross and Resurrection, the Roman Catholic church incorporates it into Aquinas' Satisfaction doctrine rooted in the idea of penance,^[69] and Evangelical Protestants interpret it largely in terms of penal substitution.

In the Roman Catholic tradition this view of atonement is balanced by the duty of Roman Catholics to perform Acts of Reparation to Jesus Christ^[54] which in the encyclical Miserentissimus Redemptor of Pope Pius XI were defined as "some sort of compensation to be rendered for the injury" with respect to the sufferings of Jesus.^[70] Pope John Paul II referred to these Acts of Reparation as the "unceasing effort to stand beside the endless crosses on which the Son of God continues to be crucified."^[71]

The Christus Victor view, which is more common among Eastern Orthodox^{[citation needed]} Christians, holds that Jesus was sent by God to defeat death and Satan. Because of his perfection, voluntary death, and Resurrection, Jesus defeated Satan and death, and arose victorious. Therefore, humanity was no longer bound in sin, but was free to rejoin God through faith in Jesus.^[72]

[edit] References

[edit] Further reading

• Cousar, Charles B. (1990). A Theology of the Cross: The Death of Jesus in the Pauline Letters. Fortress Press. ISBN 0800615581. 
• Dennis, John (2006). "Jesus’ Death in John's Gospel: A Survey of Research from Bultmann to the Present with Special Reference to the Johannine Hyper-Texts". Currents in Biblical Research 4 (3): 331–363. doi:10.1177/1476993X06064628. 
• Green, Joel B. (1988). The Death of Jesus: Tradition and Interpretation in the Passion Narrative. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 3161453492. 
• Humphreys, Colin J. (December 1983). "Dating the Crucifixion". Nature 306: 743–746. doi:10.1038/306743a0. 
• Rosenblatt, Samuel (December 1956). "The Crucifixion of Jesus from the Standpoint of Pharisaic Law". Journal of Biblical Literature 75 (4): 315–321. doi:10.2307/3261265. 
• Sloyan, Gerard S. (1995). The Crucifixion of Jesus. Fortress Press. ISBN 0800628861. 
• Schwertley, Brian (2006). The Crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Reformed Online Library. Westminster Presbyterian Church of Waupaca County.
• Terasaka, David (1996). Medical Aspects of the Crucifixion of Jesus Christ. The Blue Letter Bible.

[edit] See also

• Atonement
• Passion (Christianity)
• Descent from the Cross
• Acts of Reparation

[edit] External links

• Jewish Encyclopedia: Crucifixion: Date of Jesus' Crucifixion
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Jesus of Nazareth: The Crucifixion

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