Name of Canada

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Detail from the current Canadian $20 bank note, issued in 2004.

Detail from the defunct 25¢ note, in circulation until 1935. Today, the country is not commonly referred to as the 'Dominion of Canada'.

The name of Canada has been in use since the earliest European settlement in Canada, with the name originating from a First Nations word kanata (or canada) for "settlement", "village", or "land". Today, Canada is pronounced /ˈkænədə/ in English and /kanada/ in French. In Inuktitut, one of the official languages of the territory of Nunavut, the First Nations word (pronounced /kanata/) is used, with the Inuktitut syllabics ᑲᓇᑕ.

The French colony of Canada, New France, was set up along the Saint Lawrence River and the northern shores of the Great Lakes. Later the area became two British colonies, called Upper Canada and Lower Canada until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, the name Canada was officially adopted for the new Dominion, which was commonly referred to as the Dominion of Canada until after World War II.

[edit] Name origin

A map of North America ca. 1566, one of the first to include the name "Canada" (top right).

The name Canada originated around 1535 from the Saint-Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata meaning "village",^[1] "settlement",^[2][3] or "land";^[3] another contemporary translation was 'cluster of dwellings'.^[3] Saint-Lawrence Iroquoian, which was spoken by the inhabitants of Stadacona and the neighbouring region near present-day Quebec City in the 16th century,^[4] was closely related to other Iroquoian languages, such as Oneida and Mohawk. In modern Mohawk, for example, the word kaná:ta’ means "town".^[5][6] Jacques Cartier transcribed the word as "canada" and was first to use the word to refer not only to the village of Stadacona but also to the neighbouring region and to the Saint Lawrence River, which he called rivière de Canada. By 1545, European books and maps began referring to this region as Canada.

While the Saint-Lawrence Iroquoian origin for the name Canada is now widely accepted, other explanations have been put forth. Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix noted that some had attributed the name to the Iroquois word Kannata (pronounced Cannada) meaning "collection of huts".^{[7][8][9][10]} One theory suggested that the name originated when Spanish explorers, not having explored the northern part of the continent, wrote acá nada ("nothing here") on that part of their maps.^[8][11]

See also: List of place names in Canada of Aboriginal origin.

[edit] After the conquest of New France

After the British conquest of New France (including ceding of the French colony, Canada) in 1763, the colony was renamed as the Province of Quebec. Despite this, in the American Revolution their Articles of Confederation (1777) included a clause pre-authorizing the admission of "Canada" as a new state if it wished to join the U.S.

Following the revolution and the influx of United Empire Loyalists into Quebec, the colony was split on 26 December 1791 into Upper and Lower Canada, sometime being collectively known as "The Canadas", the first time that the name "Canada" was used as the name of a colony. While Cartier used Canadien to refer to the Iroquois residents of the colony, the term later came to be applied to French subjects born in Canada, and then to inhabitants of both colonies.

Upper and Lower Canada were merged into one colony, the Province of Canada, in 1841, based on the recommendations of the Durham Report. The former colonies were then known as Canada East and Canada West, and a single legislature was established with equal representation from each. Underpopulated Canada West opposed demands by Canada East for representation by population, but the roles reversed as Canada West's population surpassed the east's. The single colony remained governed in this way until 1 July 1867, often with coalition governments. A new capital city was being built at Ottawa, chosen in 1857 by Queen Victoria, and became a national capital.

[edit] Selection of the name Canada

At the conferences held in London to determine the form of confederation that would unite the Province of Canada (now Ontario and Quebec), the Province of New Brunswick and the Province of Nova Scotia, a delegate from either Nova Scotia or New Brunswick proposed the name Canada in February 1867, and it was unanimously accepted by the other delegates. There appears to have been little discussion,^[12] though other names were suggested (see below).

[edit] Adoption of Dominion

Canadian post card from 1905.

See also Dominion.

During the Charlottetown Conference of 1864, John A. Macdonald, who later became the first Prime Minister of Canada, talked of "founding a great British monarchy", in connection with the British Empire. He advocated, in the fourth Canadian draft of the British North America Act, the name "Kingdom of Canada,"^[13] in the text is said:

The word 'Parliament' shall mean the Legislature or Parliament of the Kingdom of Canada.

The word 'Kingdom' shall mean and comprehend the United Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.

The words 'Privy Council' shall mean such persons as may from time to time be appointed, by the Governor General, and sworn to aid and advise in the Government of the Kingdom.^[14]

Canada's founders, led by Sir John A. Macdonald wished their new nation to be called the "Kingdom of Canada". The Governor General at the time, Viscount Monck, supported the move to designate Canada a kingdom,^[15] however, officials at the Colonial Office in London opposed this potentially "premature" and "pretentious" reference for a new country. They were also wary of antagonizing the United States, which had emerged from its Civil War as a formidable military power with unsettled grievances because of British support for the Confederate cause and thus opposed the use of terms such as kingdom or empire to describe the new country.^{[citation needed]}

New Brunswick premier Sir Samuel Tilley suggested the term 'Dominion',^[16] inspired by Psalms 72:8 (from the King James Bible): "He shall have dominion also from sea to sea, and from the river unto the ends of the earth."^[17] This is also echoed in Canada's motto: A mari usque ad mare (Latin for "from sea to sea").

The term had been used for centuries to refer to the lands held by a monarch,^[18] and had previously been adopted as titles for the Dominion of New England and the Dominion and Colony of Virginia. It continued to apply as a generic term to all colonial possessions of the British Empire until well into the 20th century ^[19]. Its adoption as a title for Canada in 1867 served the purpose of upholding the monarchist principle in Canada; in a letter to Queen Victoria, Lord Carnarvon stated: "The North American delegates are anxious that the United Provinces should be designated as the 'Dominion of Canada.' It is a new title, but intended on their part as a tribute to the Monarchical principle which they earnestly desire to uphold."^[20].

MacDonald, however, bemoaned its adoption. In a letter to Lord Knutsford on the topic of the loss of the use of the word kingdom, Macdonald said:

"A great opportunity was lost in 1867 when the Dominion was formed out of the several provinces.

"The declaration of all the B.N.A. provinces that they desired as one dominion to remain a portion of the Empire, showed what wise government and generous treatment would do, and should have been marked as an epoch in the history of England. This would probably have been the case had Lord Carnarvon, who, as colonial minister, had sat at the cradle of the new Dominion, remained in office. His ill-omened resignation was followed by the appointment of the late Duke of Buckingham, who had as his adviser the then Governor General, Lord Monck - both good men, certainly, but quite unable, from the constitution of their minds, to rise to the occasion. Had a different course been pursued, for instance, had united Canada been declared to be an auxiliary kingdom, as it was in the Canadian draft of the bill, I feel sure almost that the Australian colonies would, ere this, have been applying to be placed in the same rank as The Kingdom of Canada."

He added as a postscript that it was adopted on the suggestion of British colonial ministers to avoid offending republican sensibilities in the United States:

"P.S. On reading the above over I see that it will convey the impression that the change of title from Kingdom to Dominion was caused by the Duke of Buckingham. This is not so. It was made at the instance of Lord Derby, then foreign minister, who feared the first name would wound the sensibilities of the Yankees. I mentioned this incident in our history to Lord Beaconsfield at Hughenden in 1879, who said, 'I was not aware of the circumstance, but it is so like Derby, a very good fellow, but who lives in a region of perpetual funk.'"^[21]

Use of the term dominion was formalized in 1867 through Canadian Confederation. In the Constitution of Canada, namely the Constitution Act, 1867 (British North America Acts), the preamble of the Act indicates:

"Whereas the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have expressed their Desire to be federally united into One Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with a Constitution similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom..."

and section 3 indicates that the provinces:

... shall form and be One Dominion under the Name of Canada; and on and after that Day those Three Provinces shall form and be One Dominion under that Name accordingly.

In J. S. Ewart's two volume work, The Kingdom Papers,^[22][23] it is noted that the following names were considered for the union of British North America: "The United Colony of Canada", "the United Provinces of Canada", and "the Federated Provinces of Canada".^[24] Ewart was also an ardent advocate for the formation of "the Republic of Canada", a position which was rarely expressed in those times.^[25]

[edit] French terms for Dominion

The French translation of the 1867 British North America Act translated "One Dominion under the Name of Canada" as "une seule et même Puissance sous le nom de Canada" using Puissance (power) as a translation for dominion. Later the English loan-word dominion was also used in French.

The Fathers of Confederation met at the Quebec Conference of 1864 to discuss the terms of this new union. One issue on the agenda was to determine the Union's "feudal rank" (see Resolution 71 of the Quebec Conference, 1864). The candidates for the classification of this new union were: "the Kingdom of Canada" (le Royaume du Canada), "the Realm of Canada" (le Realme du Canada), "the Union of Canada" (l'Union du Canada), and "the Dominion of Canada" (le Dominion du Canada).

[edit] Dominion status

This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. Please improve the article by adding references. See the talk page for details. (February 2008)

Neither Confederation nor the title of Dominion granted Canada any new autonomy.^{[citation needed]} Responsible Government was recognized already in eastern British North American colonies in the 1840s. Confederation transfered this limited autonomy:

"By the time of Confederation in 1867, this system had been operating in most of what is now central and eastern Canada for almost 20 years. The Fathers of Confederation simply continued the system they knew, the system that was already working, and working well."^[26]

Canadians remained as subject to the British imperial governance as they had before Confederation. Britain passed many laws that would in fact explicitly constrain Canada's autonomy.

"When the Dominion of Canada was created in 1867 it was granted powers of self-government to deal with all internal matters, but Britain still retained overall legislative supremacy. This imperial supremacy could be exercised through several statutory measures. In the first place, the Constitution Act of 1867 provides in s.55 that the Governor General may reserve any legislation passed by the two Houses of Parliament for "the signification of Her Majesty's pleasure", which is determined according to s.57 by the (British) Queen in Council. Secondly, s.56 provides that the Governor General must forward to "one of Her Majesty's Principal Secretary's of State" in London a copy of any federal legislation that has been assented to; within two years after the receipt of this copy, the (British) Queen in Council can disallow an Act. Thirdly, four pieces of Imperial legislation constrained the Canadian legislatures. The Colonial Laws Validity Act of 1865 provided that no colonial law could validly conflict with, amend or repeal Imperial legislation which explicitly or by necessary implication applied directly to that colony; the Merchant Shipping Act, 1894 as well as the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act, 1890 required reservation of Dominion legislation on those topics for approval by the British Government; and, the Colonial Stock Act of 1900 provided for the disallowance of Dominion legislation which the British government felt would harm British stockholders of Dominion trustee securities. Most importantly, however, the British Parliament could exercise the legal right of supremacy it possessed at common law to pass any legislation on any matter affecting the colonies." ^[27]

The name Dominion came to be applied to various other colonies within the British Empire such as New Zealand and Newfoundland (which did not enter Confederation until 1949). Despite these symbolic titles, Dominion status identifying semi-autonomous states within the British Empire only came into being in 1919 when these colonies signed the Treaty of Versailles:

"The First World War ended the purely colonial period in the history of the Dominions. Their military contribution to the Allied war effort gave them claim to equal recognition with other small states and a voice in the formation of policy. This claim was recognized within the Empire by the creation of the Imperial War Cabinet in 1917, and within the community of nations by Dominion signatures to the Treaty of Versailles and by separate Dominion representation in the League of Nations. In this way the "self-governing Dominions", as they were called, emerged as junior members of the international community. Their status defied exact analysis by both international and constitutional lawyers, but it was clear that they were no longer to be regarded simply as colonies of Britain."^[28]

The definition of Dominion was deliberately vague in order to deny British Dominions more autonomy:

Never at any time in [1919-39] was the full international personality of the Dominions, as distinct from Great Britain, established beyond equivocation" ^[29]

The end of Dominion status for Canada is regarded as occurring with the declaration of war in September 1939. This asserted Canada's sovereignty in international affairs; because Britain accepted the delay (it was three days later than Britain's declaration), it put an end to the semi-colonial status that Dominion implied:

"Today it is firmly established as a basic constitutional principle that, so far as relates to Canada, the King is regulated by Canadian law and must act only on the advice and responsibility of Canadian ministers".^[30]

[edit] Use of Canada and Dominion of Canada

Neither the term Dominion of Canada nor Dominion government appear in the 1867 Act; however, the former appears in the Constitution Act, 1871 — usage of which was "sanctioned" ^[31] — and both appear in other texts of the period, as well as on numerous Canadian bills before 1967.

Until the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was commonly used to identify the country. As Canada acquired political authority and autonomy from the United Kingdom, the federal government began using simply Canada on state documents. The government of Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent enacted a formal policy of removing the word "dominion" from all updated bills and statutes.^{[citation needed]}

The Canada Act 1982 refers only to Canada and, as such, it is currently the only legal (as well as bilingual) name. This was also reflected later in 1982 with the renaming of the national holiday from Dominion Day to Canada Day. Section 4 of the 1867 BNA Act declares that:

Unless it is otherwise expressed or implied, the Name Canada shall be taken to mean Canada as constituted under this Act.

and this has been interpreted to mean that the name of the country is simply Canada. No constitutional statute amends this name, and the subsequent Canada Act 1982 does not use the term dominion. However, the Canadian constitution includes the preceding BNA Acts, where the term is used; also, the Canada Act 1982 does not state that Canada is not a dominion. Official sources of the United Nations system,^[32] international organizations (such as the Organization of American States^[33]), the European Union,^[34] the United States,^[35] and other polities with which Canada has official relations as a state consistently use Canada as the only official name, state that Canada has no long-form name, or that the formal name is simply Canada. While no legal document ever says that the name of the country is anything other than Canada,^[36] Dominion and Dominion of Canada remain official titles of the country.^[37][38][39]

In recent years, the terms Dominion of Canada and Dominion are occasionally used to distinguish modern (post-1867) Canada from either the earlier Province of Canada or from the even earlier The Canadas. The terms are also used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though in this usage "federal" has become more common than "dominion". Among those who lament disuse of the term was the late Eugene Forsey, in response to what he and other monarchists consider increasing republicanism. However, the federal government continues to produce publications and educational materials that specify the currency of these official titles, although these publications are not themselves legal or official documents.^[40][39]

[edit] Other proposed names

While the provinces' delegates spent little time, if any, in settling on 'Canada' as the name for the new country, others proposed a variety of other names:^[41]

• Albion
• Albionoria — "Albion of the north"
• Borealia – from 'borealis', the Latin word for 'northern'; compare with Australia
• Cabotia – in honour of Italian explorer John Cabot, who explored the eastern coast of Canada for England
• Colonia
• Efisga — an acronym of "English, French, Irish, Scottish, German, Aboriginal"
• Hochelaga – an old name for Montreal
• Laurentia
• Mesopelagia — "land between the seas"
• Norland
• Superior
• Tuponia — derived from 'The United Provinces of North America'
• Transatlantica
• Ursalia — "place of bears"
• Vesperia — "land of the evening star"
• Victorialand – in honour of Queen Victoria

Walter Bagehot of The Economist newspaper in London argued that the new nation should be called 'Northland' or 'Anglia' instead of Canada.^[42] On these names, the statesman Thomas D'Arcy McGee commented, "Now I would ask any honourable member of the House how he would feel if he woke up some fine morning and found himself, instead of a Canadian, a Tuponian or a Hochelegander?"

[edit] Footnotes

1. ^ Origin of the Name - Canada. Department of Canadian Heritage.
2. ^ Trigger, Bruce G.; Pendergast, James F. (1978). "Saint-Lawrence Iroquoians", Handbook of North American Indians Volume 15. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 357–361. OCLC 58762737. 
3. ^ ^{a b c} Rayburn, Alan (2001). Naming Canada: stories about Canadian place names, 2nd ed., Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 13–4. ISBN 0-8020-8293-9. 
4. ^ Cartier, Jacques [1545] (2004-05-01). Relation originale de Jacques Cartier. Paris: Tross, p 48. 
5. ^ Bright, William (2004). Native American Place Names of the United States. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, p. 78. 
6. ^ Mithun, Marianne (1999). The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 312. ISBN 052129875X. 
7. ^ Hawkins, Alfred; John Charlton Fisher (1834). "7", Hawkins's Picture of Quebec: With Historical Recollections. Printed for the proprietor by Neilson and Cowan, 111. “in the note of Charlevoix, Nouvelle France, volume the first, page nine, of the quarto edition, and repeated in "Beautés de l'Histoire du Canada" affords the real solution of the difficulty: "Quelqu'uns derivent ce nom du mot Iroquois Kannata qui se prononce Cannada, et signifie un amas de cabanes;"–"Some derive this name from the Iroquois word Kannata, pronounced Cannada, signifying a collection of huts."”  [1]
8. ^ ^{a b} Hodgins, J. George. 1858. The Geography and History of British America, and of the Other Colonies of the Empire, 2nd ed.; Toronto: Maclear & co.; pp. 51-2.
9. ^ "New France is ..." Canadian Museum of Civilization
10. ^ "Let's call it...Efisga" The Canadian Encyclopedia
11. ^ "Let's call it...Efisga" The Canadian Encyclopedia
12. ^ Creighton, Donald. 1956. The Road to Confederation. Houghton Mifflin: Boston; p. 421.
13. ^ Farthing, John; Freedom Wears a Crown; Toronto, 1957
14. ^ Pope, Joseph; Confederation; pg. 177
15. ^ Hubbard, R.H.; Rideau Hall; McGill-Queen’s University Press; Montreal and London; 1977; p. 9
16. ^ Merriam-Webster Dictionary: Main Entry: do·min·ion; Function: noun; Etymology: Middle English dominioun, from Middle French dominion, modification of Latin dominium, from dominus; 4 often capitalized : a self-governing nation of the Commonwealth of Nations other than the United Kingdom that acknowledges the British monarch as chief of state
17. ^ "Sir Samuel Leonard Tilley" Library and Archives Canada.
18. ^ Treaty of Utrecht 1713 "Moreover, the most Christian King promises, as well in his own name, as in that of his heirs and successors, that they will at not time whatever disturb or give any molestation to the Queen of Great Britain, her heirs and successors, descended from the aforesaid Protestant line, who possess the crown of Great Britain, and the dominions belonging therunto."
19. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica 1911 "... on the 23rd of April 1895 Tongaland was declared by proclamation to be added to the dominions of Queen Victoria ... "
20. ^ Canadian Heritage: The Prince of Wales Royal Visit 2001, Quiz (Kids)
21. ^ Senator Cools congratulates Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II on her Forty-Seventh Anniversary of Accession to Throne, Feb 11, 1999
22. ^ Ewart, J. S. 1912–7. The Kingdom Papers, Volume I. McClelland, Goodchild, and Stewart Publishers: Toronto; p. 331.
23. ^ ibid; p. 393.
24. ^ ibid; pp. 372–393; as per "Rank and Name," pp. 374–381.
25. ^ ibid; Imperial Projects and the Republic of Canada, pp. 262–393.
26. ^ Eugene Foresey (2007-10-14). How Canadians Govern Themselves".
27. ^ Andrew Heard (2007-10-14). Canadian Independence.
28. ^ F. R. Scott (January 1944). "The End of Dominion Status". The American Journal of International Law 38: 34–49. doi:10.2307/2192530. 
29. ^ F. R. Scott (January 1944). "The End of Dominion Status". The American Journal of International Law 38: 34–49. doi:10.2307/2192530. 
30. ^ F. R. Scott (January 1944). "The End of Dominion Status". The American Journal of International Law 38: 34–49. doi:10.2307/2192530. 
31. ^ Martin, Robert. 1993(?). 1993 Eugene Forsey Memorial Lecture: A Lament for British North America. The Machray Review. Prayer Book Society of Canada. — A summative piece about nomenclature and pertinent history with abundant references.
32. ^ http://unterm.un.org/DGAACS/unterm.nsf/WebView/09CBD6F0919A243885256DC700440A19?OpenDocument United Nations Multilingual Terminology Database (UNTERM.UN.ORG), Canada page. The UN Terminology website "which holds records for each country containing the short and formal names in the six UN official languages, is the successor to UN Terminology Bulletin No. 347/Rev. 1. See UNITED NATIONS GROUP OF EXPERTS ON GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES, Working Paper No. 16
33. ^ http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/can.htm Organization of American States Office of Legal Cooperation, Member Country Information Page for Canada
34. ^ http://publications.europa.eu/code/en/en-5000500.htm European Union Gateway Interinstutional Style Guide, List of Countries, territories and currencies - "Note 1, ‘Full name’ corresponds in most cases to the official name recognized by the United Nations."
35. ^ http://www.state.gov/s/inr/rls/4250.htm United States Department of State Bureau of Intelligence and Research, Independent States of the World -- Canada: "no long-form name"
36. ^ http://www.translationbureau.gc.ca/index.php?lang=english&cont=690, Government of Canada Translation Bureau, "List of Country Names" -- Introduction notes that "The official name of a state (e.g. Islamic Republic of Iran), found under the common name (Iran), is taken from the United Nations Terminology Bulletin No. 347."
37. ^ Forsey, Eugene A., in Marsh, James H., ed. 1988. "Dominion" The Canadian Encyclopedia. Hurtig Publishers: Toronto.
38. ^ Rayburn, pp. 19, 21.
39. ^ ^{a b} Canadian Heritage: National Flag of Canada Day, Canada's Digital Collections: Confederation 1867, Canadian Heritage: The Prince of Wales Royal Visit 2001, Quiz
40. ^ Forsey, Eugene A. 2005. How Canadians Govern Themselves (PDF), 6th ed. Canada: Ottawa; pp. 8-9. The preface to the publication specifies that the opinions reflected are those of the author, and "do not necessarily reflect those of parliament."
41. ^ How Canada Got Its Name - Origin of the Name Canada
42. ^ Moore, Christopher. 1997. 1867: How the Fathers Made a Deal. McClelland and Stewart: Toronto; p. 214.

[edit] Other sources

• Choudry, Sujit. 2001(?). "Constitution Acts" (based on looseleaf by Hogg, Peter W.). Constitutional Keywords. University of Alberta, Centre for Constitutional Studies: Edmonton.
• Forsey, Eugene A. 2005. How Canadians Govern Themselves (PDF), 6th ed. (ISBN 0-662-39689-8). Canada: Ottawa; pp. 8–9, 23.
• Hallowell, Gerald, ed. 2004. The Oxford Companion to Canadian History. (ISBN 0-19-541559-0) Oxford University Press: Toronto; p. 183.
• Rayburn, Alan. 2001. Naming Canada: Stories About Canadian Place Names, 2nd ed. (ISBN 0-8020-8293-9) University of Toronto Press: Toronto.
• Acte Concenant l'Union et le Gouvernement du Canada, et de la Nouvelle-Ecosse, et de Nouveau Brunswick, Ainsi que les Objets qui s'y Rattachent (30e Victoria, Chap. 3) / An Act for the Union of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick and the Government Thereof; and for the Purposes Contected Therewith (30 Victoria, Cap 3), Typographie D'Augustin Cote, Quebec, Canada, pp. 209, (1868). French Preamble.