Clothing in ancient Rome
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Roman Dress consisted generally of the toga, the stola, brooches for these, and breeches.
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[edit] Primary Materials
[edit] Fibers
The Romans used several different types of fibers. Wool was likely the most often used, as it was easily obtained and relatively easy to prepare. Other materials used were linen and hemp, even though a more complex preparation process is required to create cloth from these sources than from wool. There is some evidence that cotton was used[1], but less often. Silk, imported from China, was also known.
These different fibers naturally had to be prepared in different ways. According to Forbes[2], wool contained around 50% fatty impurities, flax and hemp were about 25% impure, silk was between 19 and 25% impure, while cotton (the most pure of all the source fibers) contained only 6% impurities.
Wool, the most commonly used fiber, was most likely the first material to be spun. The sheep of Tarentum were renowned for the quality of their wool, though the Romans never ceased trying to optimise the wool quality through cross-breeding. Wool was spun by the lanarii pectinarii. The production of linen and hemp was very similar to that of wool and was described by Pliny the Elder. After the harvest, the material would be immersed (most probably in water), it would be skinned and then aired. Once dry, the fibers would be mechanically pressed (with a mallet) and then smoothed. Following this, the materials were woven. Linen and hemp are both tough and durable materials.
Silk and cotton were imported, from China and India respectively. Silk was rare and expensive; a luxury afforded only to the richest and worn by women.
The Romans had to turn their material with a manual spinner. Iron alum was used as the base fixing agent and it is known that the marine gastropod, Haustellum brandaris, was used as a red dye, due to its purple-red colorant (6,6'-dibromoindigotin); the color of the Emperor. A more widely used tint was indigo, allowing blue or yellow shades, while madder, a dicotyledon angiosperm, produced a shade of red and was one of the cheapest dyes available. According to Pliny the Elder, a blackish colour was preferred to red. Yellow, obtained from saffron, was expensive and reserved for the clothing of married women or the Vestal Virgins. There were far fewer colours then than we have today.
Archaeological discoveries of Greek vases depict the art of weaving, while writers in the field of antiques mention the art of weaving and fiber production. Some clothes have survived for several centuries and, as clothing is necessary, examples are numerous and diverse. These materials often provide some of the most detailed and precious information on the production means used, on the dyes used, on the nature of the soil where the materials were grown and, therefore, on trade routes and climate, among many other things. Historical research in this area is very active as it allows researchers to understand a large amount about the lifestyle of the Romans.
The materials used were similar to those used by the ancient Greeks, except the tilling process had been ameliorated and the tilled linen and wool were of a far superior quality.
[edit] Hides, Leather and Skins
The Romans used tools that resembled those of the Middle Ages. The Romans had two main ways of tanning, one of which was mineral tanning, or "tawing" – making hide into leather without the use of tannin, especially by soaking it in a solution of alum and salt.
The tanned leather was then used to fashion heavy coats to keep Roman soldiers warm during travel, and in more frigid areas of Rome, it was used during cold seasons.
The leather was not given to the soldiers by the military commanders or overseers, but rather from the soldier's wives and family before they soldiers march into battle.
Although leather was sometimes used for protection against poor weather, its primary use was as a secondary, or less expensive armor. Roman belts, wristbands, and leather arm guard (manica Latin)[3] were made for troops, and more commonly, the gladiators. Much of the items were quantitatively increased because of practical use during the 1 century A.D. among Roman Legionaries.
Animal skins were worn over the helmet with bearskins being popular with legionaries and feline pelts with Preatorians.[4] Ancient Roman taxidermists would keep the head and back/sides, with the front arms attached to tie and fasten it over the soldier's armor. The animal's head would fit over the soldier's helmet, and was mostly worn by the Roman aquilifer[5], who carried the symbol of Rome into battle.
The Romans rarely used goatskin for their leather, preferring pig or sheepskin, though the ideal would be the preferred leather was that most readily available – cow skin. The thickest and most durable leather was also used for shoe soles.
[edit] Types of Clothing
[edit] Women's clothing
Women wore very simple stolae and usually followed the fashions of their Greek contemporaries. These stoles were usually comprised of two rectangular segments of cloth joined at the side by safety pins, brooches and, finally, buttons in a manner that allowed the garment to drape freely over the front of the wearer. Over the stole the palla was usually worn; a sort of shawl made of an oblong piece of material that could be worn as a coat, with or without hood, or slung over the left shoulder, under the right arm and then draped over the left arm [1].
[edit] Undergarments
The Romans also wore undergarments, often a simple rectangle sewn into a tubular shape and pinned around the shoulders like a chiton. The strophium or breast cloth, was another form of undergarment. The Latin word for underpants, subligaria was revealed by the Vindolanda tablets.
[edit] Official clothing
The dress code of the day was complex and had to accurately reflect one's position in the social order, one's gender and one's language.
[edit] Togas
The variations of clothing worn in Rome were similar to the clothing worn in Greece at the same time, with the exception of the traditionally Roman toga. Until the 5th century B.C., the toga was unisex and bore no distinction of rank - after that, a female wearing a toga was marked out as a prostitute. The differentiation between rich and poor was made through the quality of the material; the upper-classes wore thin, naturally colored, wool togas while the lower-classes wore coarse material or thin felt. They also differentiated by colours used:
- the toga praetextata, with a purple border, worn by male children, and magistrates during official ceremonies.
- the toga picta or toga palmata, toga with a gold border used by generals in their triumphs.
- trabea' - toga entirely in purple, worn by statues of gods and emperors.
- saffron toga - worn by augurs, white with a purple band, also worn by consuls on public festivals and equites during a transvectio.
[edit] Religious ceremonies
- laena - worn by the king and the flamens at sacrifices.
- crocota - saffron female robe worn in ceremonies to Cybele.
[edit] Footwear
A typical Roman sandal (calceus or calceolus for the women) consisted of a leather sole with a long lace that was wound up the wearer's leg. The lacing of a typical Roman shoe would always leave a part of the foot exposed. Numerous variations of these two models have been found. The majority of Roman shoes took inspiration from their Greek counterparts. It is assumed that the quality of women's shoes was judged on how thin and light the leather was. The Romans also invented socks for those soldiers required to fight on the northern frontiers, sometimes worn in sandals.[2]
[edit] Types
- baxa - a light sandal worn by intellectuals
- carbatina - a shoe made by peasants from a single piece of leather
- caliga - soldier's sandals (cf Caligula)
- cothurnus and crepida - used by the actors.
- pero - boot for agricultural workers
- sandalium - or obstrigilium - women's sandals
- phaecasium - white shoe of eastern priests
- sculponaeae - clogs
- socccus - slippers without upperwork for indoor wear by both sexes
- solea - slipper with upperwork
[edit] References
- ^ Pliny the Elder's Natural History, book 12 pp. 38
- ^ Forbes, R. J. Studies in Ancient Technology vol. IV. Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1964.
- ^ http://www.romegiftshop.com/romanleather.html
- ^ http://www.arco-web.org/Roman_Villa/aquilifer.php
- ^ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquilifer
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