New Testament apocrypha
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New Testament apocrypha are a number of writings of the early Christian church that claim to give accounts of the teachings of Jesus, aspects of the life of Jesus, accounts of the nature of God, or the teachings of his apostles and of their lives. These writings often have links with those books which are regarded as "canonical". Not every branch of the Christian church is in agreement as to which writings are to be regarded as "canonical" and which are "apocryphal".
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[edit] Definition
The word "apocrypha" means "hidden writings" and comes from the Greek through Latin. The general term is usually applied to the books that were considered by the church as useful, but not divinely inspired. As such, to refer to Gnostic writings as "apocryphal" is misleading since they would not be classified in the same category by orthodox believers.
[edit] History
That some works are categorized as New Testament apocrypha is indicative of the wide range of responses that were engendered in the interpretation of the message of Jesus of Nazareth. During the first several centuries of the transmission of that message, considerable debate turned on safeguarding its authenticity. Three key methods of addressing this survive to the present day: ordination, where groups authorize individuals as reliable teachers of the message; creeds, where groups define the boundaries of interpretation of the message; and canons, which list the primary documents certain groups believe contain the message originally taught by Jesus (in other words, the Bible). Many early books about Jesus were not included in the canons, and are now termed apocryphal. Some of them were vigorously suppressed and survive only as fragments. The earliest lists of authentic works of the New Testament were not quite the same as modern lists; for example the Book of Revelation was long regarded as unauthentic, while Shepherd of Hermas was considered genuine by many Christians, and appears in several ancient bibles.
The works that presented themselves as "authentic" but did not obtain general acceptance from within the churches are called New Testament Apocrypha. These are not accepted as canonical by most mainstream Christian denominations; only the Ethiopian Orthodox Church recognizes the Shepherd of Hermas, 1 Clement, Acts of Paul, and several Old Testament books that most other denominations reject, but it should be noted that this church does not adhere to an explicit canon. The Syriac Peshitta, used by all the various Syrian Churches, originally did not include 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, Jude and Revelation (and this canon of 22 books is the one cited by John Chrysostom (~347-407) and Theodoret (393-466) from the School of Antioch [1]). Western Syrians have added the remaining 5 books to their NT canons in modern times [2](such as the Lee Peshitta of 1823). Today, the official lectionaries followed by the Malankara Syrian Orthodox Church, with headquarters at Kottayam (India), and the Chaldean Syrian Church, also known as the Church of the East (Nestorian), with headquarters at Trichur (India), still present lessons from only the 22 books of the original Peshitta [3] only. The Armenian Apostolic church at times has included the Third Epistle to the Corinthians, but does not always list it with the other 27 canonical New Testament books. This Church did not accept the Revelation into its Bible until A.D. 1200.[4] The New Testament of the Coptic Bible, adopted by the Egyptian Church, includes the two Epistles of Clement.
Books which are objectively known not to have existed in antiquity, such as the medieval Gospel of Barnabas, are usually not considered part of the New Testament Apocrypha. Among these are also the Libellus de Nativitate Sanctae Mariae (also named as the Nativity of Mary) and Latin Infancy Gospel. The latter two did not exist in the antiquity, and seem to be based on the earlier Infancy Gospels.
[edit] The apocryphal books
[edit] Gospels
Main articles: Gospels and List of Gospels
[edit] Infancy Gospels
The rarity of information about the childhood of Jesus in the canonical Gospels led to a hunger of early Christians for more detail about the early life of Jesus. This was supplied by a number of 2nd century and later texts, known as infancy gospels, none of which were accepted into the biblical canon, but the very number of their surviving manuscripts attest to their continued popularity. Most of these were based on the earliest infancy gospels, namely the Protoevangelion of James (also called the Gospel of James) and Infancy Gospel of Thomas (not to be confused with the Gospel of Thomas), and on their later combination into the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew (also called the Birth of Mary and Infancy of the Saviour).
The other main significant early Infancy Gospels are:
[edit] Jewish Christian Gospels
Jewish Christian sects within Early Christianity that retained a strong allegiance to Judaism, upholding Mosaic Law, used a Gospel specific to themselves:
Since these mostly survive as quotes scattered amongst critical commentaries by Pauline Christianity, some modern theories suggest that these may be variations on one another, although the quotations from the Gospel of the Ebionites appear more distinct than the others. It has also been suggested that the Gospel of the Hebrews may have been an earlier version of the Greek Gospel of Matthew.
[edit] Rival versions of canonical Gospels
Many alternate edited versions of other gospels existed during the period of early Christianity. Sometimes, those attributed to the text state elsewhere that their text is the earlier version, or that their text excises all the additions and distortions made by their opponents to the more recognised version of the text. The church fathers insist that these people are incorrect (and indeed heretical) in their assertions, but some modern scholars do not. It remains to be seen whether any are earlier and more accurate versions of the canonical texts. Details of their contents only survive in the attacks on them by their opponents, and so for the most part it is uncertain as to how extensively different they are, and whether any constitute entirely different works. These texts include:
- Gospel of Cerinthus
- Gospel of Basilides
- Gospel of Marcion (version of Luke: Marcion claimed it was more original than the current version)
- Gospel of Appelles
- Gospel of Bardesanes
- Gospel of Mani
[edit] Sayings Gospels
One or two texts take the form of sets of brief logia—sayings and very short parables—which are not embedded in a connected narrative:
- The Gospel of Thomas (not to be confused with the Infancy Gospel of Thomas)
A growing minority of scholars regard the Gospel of Thomas as part of the tradition from which the canonical gospels eventually emerged; in any case both of these documents are important as showing us what the theoretical Q document, see below, might have looked like.
[edit] Morality Gospels
Some texts take the form of discourses on morality, and in particular on sexual abstinence, usually taking the form of a discussion between Jesus and one or more disciples:
- Greek Gospel of the Egyptians (wholly independent of its namesake, the Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians)
- Book of Thomas the Contender (also called the "Book of Thomas", "Epistle of the Contender", and "Letter of the contender")
[edit] Passion Gospels
A number of Gospels are concerned specifically with the Passion (i.e. Jesus' death, and Resurrection):
- The Gospel of Peter
- The Gospel of Nicodemus (also called the "Acts of Pilate")
- The Gospel of Bartholomew
- The Questions of Bartholomew
- The Resurrection of Jesus Christ (which claims to be according to Bartholomew)
Although there are three texts which take Bartholomew's name, it may be the case that one of the Questions of Bartholomew or the Resurrection of Jesus Christ is in fact the unknown Gospel of Bartholomew
[edit] Harmonic Gospels
A number of texts aim to provide a single harmonization of the canonical gospels, that eliminates discordances among them by presenting a unified text derived from them to some degree. The most widely-read of these was the Diatessaron: of all the extant texts, the majority appear to be variations on the suppressed Diatessaron.
[edit] Acts
Main article: Acts of the Apostles (genre)
Several texts concern themselves with the subsequent lives of the apostles:
[edit] Leucian Acts of the Apostles
Works said to be written by Leucius Charinus (known as the Leucian Acts), a companion of John the apostle.
- The Acts of John
- The Acts of Peter (the concluding part of which was sometimes separate and named Martyrdom of Peter)
- The Acts of Andrew (also called the Gospel of Andrew)
- The Acts of Thomas
- The Acts of Paul, which contained within it texts which were sometimes found separately including:
[edit] Accounts of Apostolic Lives
- The Acts of Peter and Andrew
- The Acts of Peter and the Twelve
- The Acts of Peter and Paul
- The Nine Books of Clement
- The Acts of Phillip
- The Acts of Xanthippe, Polyxena, and Rebecca featuring Paul, Peter, Philip, and Andrew
[edit] Epistles
Main article: Epistles
There are also non canonical epistles, some of which were regarded very highly by the early church:
- The Epistle of Barnabas (also called the "Gospel of Barnabas", not to be confused with the mediaeval Gospel of Barnabas)
- 1 and 2 Clement
- The Epistle of the Corinthians to Paul
- The Epistle to the Laodiceans (an epistle in the name of Paul) Found only in some manuscripts of the Latin Vulgate apocrypha
- The Third Epistle to the Thessalonians (an epistle in the name of Paul)
- The Epistle to Seneca the Younger (an epistle in the name of Paul)
- The Epistles of Jesus Christ and Abgarus King of Edessa (See Image of Edessa)
- The Third Epistle to the Corinthians - Accepted in the past by some in the Armenian Orthodox church.
[edit] Apocalypses
Main article: Apocalyptic literature
Several works frame themselves as visions, often discussing the future, afterlife, or both:
- Apocalypse of Peter (very different from the Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter)
- Apocalypse of Thomas (also called the Revelation of Thomas)
- Apocalypse of Stephen (also called the Revelation of Stephen)
- First Apocalypse of James (also called the First Revelation of James)
- Second Apocalypse of James (also called the Second Revelation of James)
- Apocalypse of Paul (with a change of visionary, this becomes the Apocalypse of the Virgin)
[edit] Fate of Mary
Several texts (over 50) consist of descriptions of the events surrounding the varied fate of Mary (the mother of Jesus):
- The Home Going of Mary
- The Falling asleep of the Mother of God
- The Descent of Mary
[edit] Miscellany
Other texts exist which concern rather more miscellaneous topics:
- The Physiologus of Ambrose
- The Foundation
- The Cave of Treasures (also known simply as The Treasure)
- The Didache (possibly the first written catechism)
- The Apocryphon of James (also named Secret Gospel of James)
- The Prayer of Paul
- The Sermon of Paul
- The Penitence of Origen
- The Sentences of Sextus
- The Book of Nepos
- The Canons of the Apostles
- The Apostolic Constitutions - church regulations supposedly asserted by the apostles
- Clementine literature
- Liturgy of St James
[edit] Fragments
In addition to the known Apocryphal works, there are also small fragments of texts, parts of unknown (or uncertain) works. Some of the more significant fragments are:
- The Unknown Berlin Gospel
- The Naassene Fragment
- The Fayum Fragment
- The Secret Gospel of Mark
- The Oxyrhynchus Gospels
- The Egerton Gospel
[edit] Gnostic esoterica
In the modern era, many Gnostic texts have been uncovered, especially from the Nag Hammadi library. Some texts take the form of an expounding of the esoteric cosmology and ethics held by the gnostics. Often this was in the form of dialogue in which Jesus expounds esoteric knowledge while his disciples raise questions concerning it. There is also a text, known as the Epistula Apostolorum, which is a polemic against gnostic esoterica, but written in a similar style as the gnostic texts.
[edit] General Gnostic Texts
- The Gospel of Philip A collection of different gnostic teachings and reflections.
- Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter (very different from its namesake, the Apocalypse of Peter)
- The Sophia of Jesus Christ (also called the "Sophia Jesu Christi", and more erroneously as the "Wisdom of Jesus Christ", which translates "Sophia" instead of regarding it as a name)
- The Dialogue of the Saviour
- The Gospel of Mary Magdalene (also called the "Gospel of Mary")
- Interpretation of Knowledge
- The Gospel of Truth
- Pistis Sophia
Whilst the Epistle of Eusegius does not make mention of Jesus, it is thought to be the basis of Sophia Jesu Christi. Some count it amongst the apocrypha, although it does not meet all criteria.
[edit] Sethian Gnostic Texts
The Sethians were a gnostic group who originally worshipped the biblical Seth as a messianic figure, later treating Jesus as a re-incarnation of Seth. They produced numerous texts expounding their esoteric cosmology, usually in the form of visions:
- The Apocalypse of Adam
- The Apocryphon of John (also called the "Secret Gospel of John")
- The Trimorphic Protennoia
- The Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians (wholly independent of its namesake, the Greek Gospel of the Egyptians)
- The Coptic Apocalypse of Paul (wholly independent of its namesake, the Apocalypse of Paul)
Four of these texts, in the form of visions, are heavily platonistic:
[edit] Cainite Gnostic Texts
The small Cainite sect of gnostics viewed significant biblical figures more usually considered arch-villains as heroes. They are so-named since they considered Cain to have been the first victim of Yahweh's evil. They also considered Judas to have been a hero, doing what had to be done to bring about salvation, and expounding wisdom. Amongst their literature is:
- The Gospel of Judas
[edit] Ritual Diagrams
Some of the Gnostic texts appear to consist of diagrams and instructions for use in religious rituals:
- The Ophite Diagrams
- The First and Second Books of Jeu
[edit] Lost works
There are several texts which would be considered part of the apocrypha, which are mentioned in many ancient sources, but for which no known text has survived:
- The Gospel of Matthias (probably different from the Gospel of Matthew)
- The Gospel of the Four Heavenly Realms
- The Gospel of Perfection - Used by the followers of Basilides and other Gnostics. See Epiphanius, Haer. xxvi. 2.
- The Gospel of Eve - A quotation from this gospel is given by Epiphanius (Haer. xxvi. 2, 3). It is possible that this is the Gospel of Perfection which he eludes to in xxvi. 2. The quotation shows that this gospel was the expression of complete pantheism.
- The Gospel of the Twelve
- The Gospel of Thaddaeus - this may be a synonym for the Gospel of Judas, confusing Judas Iscariot for Judas Thaddaeus
- Memoria Apostolorum
- The Gospel of the Seventy
- The Grave-plate of the Apostles
- The Book of spells of serpents
- The Portion of the Apostles
[edit] A note about orthodoxy
While many of the books listed here were considered heretical (especially those belonging to the gnostic tradition--as this sect was considered heretical by most Christians of the early centuries), others were not considered particularly heretical in content, but in fact were well accepted as significant spiritual works. They are however not considered canonical, as they belong to the category of works of the church fathers or Apostolic Fathers.
- 1 and 2 Clement
- Shepherd of Hermas
- Didache
- Epistle of Barnabas
- Apocalypse of Peter
- The Protevangelium of James
- Third Epistle to the Corinthians
[edit] Evaluation
The ordinary stand of mainstream Christians in regard to the books deemed apocryphal was succinctly summed up by Robert M. Grant, claiming to speak not as a theologian but as a historian, in the introduction to A Historical Introduction to the New Testament (1963): Aside from the twenty-seven books in the canon, Grant asserted, "No other literature has anything of value to say about Christian origins and the earliest Christian movement." [5].
J. Quasten, a scholar of early Christian literature (Patrology, 1990) to summarize his view on the Apocryphal literature of early Christianity, quotes M.R. James saying:
People may still be heard to say, 'After all, these Apocryphal Gospels and Acts, as you call them, are just as interesting as the old ones. It was only by accident or caprice that they were not put into the New Testament'. The best answer (...) has always been, and is now, to produce the writings and let them tell their own story. It will very quickly be seen that there is no question of anyone's having excluded them from the New Testament: they have done that for themselves.
However, among historians of early Christianity the books are considered invaluable, especially those which almost made it into the final canon such as Shepherd of Hermas. Bart Ehrman, for example, has said:
- The victors in the struggles to establish Christian Orthodoxy not only won their theological battles, they also rewrote the history of the conflict; later readers then naturally assumed that the victorious views had been embraced by the vast majority of Christians from the very beginning ... The practice of Christian forgery has a long and distinguished history ... the debate lasted three hundred years ... even within "orthodox" circles there was considerable debate concerning which books to include -Lost Christianities, Bart Ehrman
[edit] See also
- List of Gospels
- The Q document, an apparent document underlying much of the text of the canonical gospels of Matthew and Luke
- Textual criticism
- Historicity of Jesus
- History of Christianity
- Authorship of the Pauline epistles
- Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture
[edit] External links
Some of the most complete collections and resources on New Testament Apocrypha can be found at: