Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
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- This article is part of Ottoman Empire series for period 1908-1922. For the historiography of "dissolution" refer to Fall of the Ottoman Empire.
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| Rise (1299–1453): Interregnum | ||
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| Stagnation (1683–1827): Köprülü era - Sultanate of women - Tulip period |
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| Decline (1828–1908): Tanzimat era - 1stConstitutional Era |
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| Dissolution (1908–1922): 2ndConstitutional Era - Partitioning |
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The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, (1908-1922) was the final years of the Ottoman Empire. It begins with the watershed event of Young Turk Revolution and ends with the birth of Republic of Turkey after the partitioning of the Empire by the victorious sides of the World War One in the early part of the 20th century.
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[edit] Revolution and reorganization, 1908
In July of 1908, the Young Turk Revolution, in a few short weeks changed the political structure of Empire. Abdul Hamid's regime which lasted more than 35 years and the former autocratic system developed under his control were destroyed. Young Turk Revolution which had a support from British gave a way to a new political system. The influence of Germany was not as dominant as Abdul Hamid's regime. The Armenians, Roman Catholic Syrians, Greeks of the Archipelago, and Bulgarians of Macedonia forgot Empire inaugurationed the new fraternity and progress. There was a unification theme and groups which fought against each other wished to work out the salvation of a common country.
Heads of Macedonian bands (ITRO) fraternized with the members of the "Committee of Union and Progress"; Greeks and Bulgarians embraced one another under the second biggest party "Liberal Union". The Bulgarian federalist wing welcomed in the revolution and later joined mainstream political life as the People's Federative Party (Ottoman Empire) (Bulgarian section). Even, some of its leaders like Sandanski and Chernopeev participated in the march on Istanbul to depose the "attempt to dismantle constitution (Countercoup (1909))". The former centralist formed the Bulgarian Constitutional Clubs and like the PFP participated in Ottoman elections. Armenians which formed "Armenakan", "Social Democrat Hunchakian Party" (Hunchakian ) and "Armenian Revolutionary Federation" (Dashnak or Tashnag) begin to work openly as there was no Abdul Hamid's pressure on them.
The new political system revolutionize the administration of the Empire; a new radical renovation period established. The civil commissioners of the Abdul Hamid's system, the officers of the gendarmerie of the Abdul Hamid's system, the European members of the financial commission, the Ottoman Public Debt Administration which was establisted under Abdul Hamid's system, were gradually disappeared.
Aligned with the revolution's institutions becoming stable, the foreign relations (schemes of relations) of the Empire took Europe by surprise. Russia—supported by England and France, who thought the moment had come, for the governing of the Straits to be improved in the favor of the European powers. Their influence in Abdul Hamid's Porte — which was not enough - rejected the compensation. The new regime absolutely refused.
[edit] Dissatisfaction with constitutional regime
Once the first enthusiasm had passed and no miracles came out, the irritating grievances and signs of disaffection with the new regime became evident as early as 1909. The unification theme did not last long. The revolutionary movement of the Empire which begin in 1908, with the Young Turk Revolution did not end in 1908. The newly established political system assumed that the citizens of the Empire could unite under one flag which represent the Ottomanism (tr:Osmanli , Osmanlis)). The process of replacing the monarchic institutions with constitutional institutions and electoral policies was neither as simple nor as bloodless as the regime change itself. The periphery of the Empire continued to splinter under the pressures of local revolutions.
But it was too late to reverse what was oppressed under Abdul Hamid's regime. Equilibrium between Muslims and Christians was impossible to reach. Christian citizens of the Empire held on the old path to guard their new rights by the old means of plots and recourse to foreign protection. The Christians side, which had more economic and social power over Muslims were becoming dominant. They wanted to have a check (control, granter) of abuses of liberty they sought, which developed as an affirmation of the superiority was nothing but the destructive to the Osmanlis (Ottomanism). The new government was handicapped from the beginning. Any effort through political readjustments to solve the puzzling problems of Empire demand time, great patience, and unusual sagacity for successful accomplishment. Unfortunately elements inside and outside the empire gave the new government less then a year (1908 to 1909) to test their program of reforms, and laid upon them a diplomatic task beyond their sagacity.
[edit] Cretan union with Greece, 1908
Just after the revolution, the Cretan deputies declared union with Greece by taking advantage of revolution as well as the timing of Zaimis's vacation away from the island.[1] The 1908 left the issue unsolved between the Empire and Cretans. In 1909 after the parliament elected the governing structure, CUP decided that if order was maintained and the rights of Muslims were respected issue would be solved with negotiations.
The island has been trying to separate itself from the Empire since 1897. An insurrection in 1897 led the Ottoman Empire declaring war on Greece. However, Britain, France, Italy and Russia decided that Turkey could no longer maintain control and intervened. By March 1897, the Great Powers decided to restore order by governing the island temporarily through a committee of four admirals who remained in charge until the arrival of Prince George of Greece as first governor-general of an autonomous Crete, effectively detached from the Ottoman Empire, on 9 December 1898. The new situation internationally recognized after the Balkan Wars in 1913. By the Treaty of London relinquished the rights to the island.
[edit] Albanians and Latin Alphabet, 1909
- See also: Albanian nationalism and independence
Albanians of Tirana and Elbassan were one of the first groups that joined to the constitutional movement. In November Albanian congress met at Monastir and adopted the Latin alphabet, instead of Arabic alphabet. This was perceived as the sign of separation by the CUP's major policies. Albanians had been member of CUP before the Revolution. Even there is a position that the revolution began two weeks before the accepted date, which Albanian Captain Ahmet Niyazi, with 200 men, took to the mountains and issued a demand for the restoration of the constitution. The CUP, however, were set on maintaining the empire and not interested in making concessions to the myriad nationalist groups within its borders.
The Albanian dissatisfaction began with the opposition to Latin alphabet spread very rapidly. Muslim clergy wanted to impose the Arabic alphabet, instead of Latin alphabet. By 1910 reached a stage of claiming the unification of Albanians vilayets, as a kind of autonomous "Great Albania". With the help of rumors which claimed taxes to be imposed upon eggs and beards, Albanians found themselves into a revolt. It was suppressed by Shevket Torgut Pasha. Discontent continued in 1911 and 1912. Albanian trouble breakdown the system more than anything else towards undermining the new constitution.
The Albanian movement was encouraged by Austria-Hungary. The road from Durazzo to Monastir has throughout history been an alternative route to that which follows the Morava valley, and Austria-Hungary used this opportunity. Austria's encouragement in Ottoman Affairs alarmed Italy. These events played its part in deciding Italy to open the unprovoked Italo-Turkish War of 1911.
[edit] Attempt to dismantle constitution, 1909
- See also: Countercoup (1909) and 31 March Incident
After nine months into the system, discontent and reaction found expression in a fundamentalist movement which attempted to dismantle the Second Constitutional Era and revert it with a monarchy under Sultan Abdul Hamid II. The Sultan's bid for a return to power gained traction when he promised to restore the Caliphate, eliminate secular policies, and restore the rule of Islamic law. This counter coup faced with the 31 March Incident.
"31 March Incident" restored the order. It's most important outcome is the rewrite of the constitution that was restored with the 1908 revolution. On April 13, 1909, Abdul Hamid II was finally removed from the throne. Mehmed V became the Sultan. The constitution granted by the Sultan Mehmed V, 5 August 1909, proclaimed the equality of all subjects in the matter of taxes, military service (first time Christians are admitted into the army), and political rights (the parliament is indiscriminate by all the races). The new constitution was perceived as a big step for the establishment of a common law for all subjects, the suppression of all privileges and capitulations. The position of Sultan reduced to mere symbolic significance. Sultan had some constitutional powers, such as declaring war, but Sultan's executive powers curtailed.
New constitution, aimed to bring more sovereignty to the public, could not touch a certain number of public services, such as that of the ottoman public debt, or institutions like the Ottoman Bank or Ottoman Public Debt Administration, have an international character. The same holds good of most of the companies which were formed to execute public works such as Baghdad Railway, tobacco and cigarette trades of two French companies the "Regie Compagnie interessee des tabacs de l'empire Ottoman", and "Narquileh tobacco". The "secular ambitions (secular policies)" of the new government, seen as the only viable way to the "Ottomanism", was a hurdle for the "Sick man of Europe." The economic wars between the Powers using the capitulations as their way into Sick man of Europe did not coexist with the secular ambitions.
[edit] Italian War, 1911
Italy declared war on the Empire on September 29, 1911, demanding the turnover of Tripoli and Cyrenaica. The empire's response was weak so Italian forces took those areas on November 5 of that year (this act was confirmed by an act of the Italian Parliament on February 25, 1912).
[edit] Balkan Wars, 1912-1913
The three new Balkan states formed at the end of the 19th century and Montenegro, sought additional territories from the Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace, behind their nationalistic arguments. The incomplete emergence of these nation-states on the fringes of the Ottoman Empire during the nineteenth century set the stage for the Balkan Wars. On October 10 12 the collective note of the powers was handed in at Constantinople.
CUP responded to demandes of European powers on reforms in Macedonia on October 14.[2] with a promise of reforms. But before further action could be taken war broke out. While Powers were asking Empire to reform Macedonia, under the encouragement of Russia, a series of agreements were concluded: between Serbia and Bulgaria in March 1912 and between Greece and Bulgaria in May 1912. Montenegro subsequently concluded agreements between Serbia and Bulgaria respectively in October 1912. The Serbian-Bulgarian agreement specifically called for the partition of Macedonia which resulted in the First Balkan War.
The Second Balkan War soon followed. In 1913 a nationalist uprising broke out in Albania, and on October 8, the Balkan League, consisting of Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and Bulgaria, mounted a joint attack on the Ottoman Empire, starting the First Balkan War. Albania declared independence on November 28, Turkey agreed to a ceasefire on December 2, and its territory losses were finalized in 1913 in the treaties of London and Bucharest. Albania became independent, and the Empire lost almost all of its European territory (Kosovo, Sanjak of Novi Pazar, Macedonia and western Thrace) to the four allies.
 1913-Military Hospital Camp. |
 1913-Cholera was common among soldiers |
 1913-Pain of the soldiers |
[edit] Cession of Kuwait, 1913
The Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913 was a short-lived agreement signed in July 1913 between the Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI and the British over several issues. However it was the issue over the status of Kuwait that came to be the only long-lived result, as its outcome was formal independence for Kuwait.
During the WWI, the Ottoman Empire was financially crippled and the invading British forces invalidated the Anglo-Ottoman Convention, declaring Kuwait to be an "independent sheikdom under British protectorate."
[edit] Cession of Albania, 1913
Albania had been under Ottoman rule from around 1478. In 1913, Great Powers conclude that Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro should not be permitted to divide Albania between them. The Albanian factions had laid aside their differences and, assembled a provincial governing structure. It proclaimed independence.
Britain declared that the Ottoman Empire lost it's privileges in this region and therefore there should be an autonomous Albania. The Treaty of London declared the independence of Albania. Prince William of Wied, a nephew of Queen Elisabeth of Romania was to become the prince of the sovereign, newly independent Albania.
[edit] Before the War, 1914
There were three important questions at the turn of 1914 that the Ottoman Government was actively working on. The first one was the improving the relations between Bulgaria; the second was improving the Germanic cooperation, and the negotiations in progress between Europe and the Ottoman Government in reference to reforms for Armenia.
In regard to the first, as a result of the Balkan Wars, both Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria had suffered in a manner which naturally made these countries into closer sympathy with one another because of the territories which they have given. Both of these states had bitter relations with Greece. it was natural and beneficial to work for the development of policies enable each of them to gain better positions in the region.
In regard to the second, at the turn of 1914, British Naval Mission was led by Admiral Limpus, French Gendarmerie Mission led by General Moujen, and German Military Mission existed. Among these three, German Military Mission become the most important as the command center of the Ottoman military, the Sultan, Minister of War, and Head of German Mission developed extensive relations. The history of these relations went back to 1912, Grand Vizier the Sait Halim Pasha and Minister of War Ahmet Izzet Pasha. Kaiser Wilhelm II ordered General Goltz to establish the initial mission, which served two periods in within two years. In the early 1914, the Minister of War Enver Pasha, a former military attache to Berlin was at the helm, and that, at about the same time, General Liman von Sanders, a German general, was nominated to the command of the 1st Army. 1st Army was the biggest which was located in the Europan side. General Liman von Sanders and Enver Pasha practically shared the commander-in-chief position.
[edit] Armenian reform package
In regard to the third one, the Armenian reform package which was the arrangement negotiated with Russia, acting on behalf of the Great Powers, and the Ottoman Empire concerning the introduction of reforms to the Armenian citizens of the empire. This agreement, which was solidified in February, which was based on the arrangements nominally made in 1878. According to this arrangement the inspectors general, whose powers and duties constituted the key to the question, were to be named for a period of ten years, and their engagement was not to be revocable during that period.
[edit] Capitulations & Public Dept
Ottoman public debt was part of a larger schemes of political control, through which the commercial interests of the world had seek to gain advantages that may not be to Empire's interest. The total pre-war debt of Empire was $716,000,000. France had 60 per cent of the total, Germany was 20 per cent, and Great Britain was 15 per cent. The debt was administered by a Ottoman Public Debt Administration and its power was extended to the Imperial Ottoman Bank (Central bank). Debt Administration controlled many of the important revenues of the empire. The Council had power every financial affairs. It's control even extended to determine the tax on live stock in districts. Siding with Germany, with the minimum dept holder put the Empire in the position to pay its dept or even pay a war indemnity.
On September 10, 1915, Ottoman Empire abolished the "Capitulations", which the capitulation holders refused to recognize her action. A citizen of any of the great powers was practically exempt from the payment of income taxes and several other kinds of taxes to which the Turk was subject. He was immune from search, could secure passports from his own consul, and could be tried in courts of his own nationality. All these special privileges together constituted a body of privileges known as "Capitulations."
When the capitulations were first established it was supposed that foreign assistance with the given privileges benefit the Empire. As a result, almost all the business of the country was in the hands of non-Muslim people — Armenians, hands Greeks, Jews, Italians, French, Germans, and English. But this system produced and environment which he Muslim's of the Empire stayed poor, and the standard of education never increased. Wherever mines have been developed, railroads or irrigation works constructed, foreign capital and foreign brains have been chiefly responsible. And so it would, if it were not that foreigners occupy a privileged position in the country. In fact, citizens of Great Britain, Italy, France, Germany, and Austria-Hungary were in many respects in a separate class from Muslim citizens, whether Turks, Greeks, Armenians, or Jews.
The capitulations were seen as a reason for corruption. Officials sought bribes at every opportunity, withheld the proceeds of a vicious and discriminatory tax system, ruined every struggling industry by graft, and fought with massacre every show of independence on the part of Empire's many subject peoples.
[edit] World War I, 1914-1918
At the outbreak of the war Ottoman government declared neutrality with the "Notification of Neutrality" on August 18.[3] On September 10th the Grand Vizier annulled the Capitulations, though the conferred special privileges on the nationals of foreign powers ended. On September 28th the straits were closed to naval traffic. Straits were vital for the communications between the Western Allies and Russia. On October 19. Goeben and Breslau received by Ottoman officials. Along an agreement with the German military mission, CUP did not discharged the crews of these ships. On October 21, Six hundred more German officers reported to arrive along the military mission. On October 29 Allies presented a note to Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha that they had an agreement with Egypt and any hostiluty towards Egypt will be treated as declaration of war. On October 29th, after the Pursuit of Goeben and Breslau, Breslau bombarded the Black Sea port of Theodosia. On November 2 Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha expresses regret to Allies for war operations of fleet. Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs Kazonof says It Is too late and Russia accepted this raid as an act of war. The Cabinet tried to explain that hostilities were begun without its sanction by German officers serving in the navy. Allies insist on reparation to Russia, dismissal of German officers from the Goeben and Breslau, and internment of vessels until end of the war. But before the response generated; Great Britain and France declared war on Ottoman Empire on November 5th. CUP's official declaration of War came on November 14.[4]
There were objective reasons for government's choice. Initially government, especially minster of state Talaat Pasha, had looked Britain as a side. But Britain had not maintained an isolated position in Europe. Russia was the pivotal point. When Britain was drawn into the Triple Entente and began to cultivate relations with Russia, Porte became distrustful. The Porte had gradually drifted, with opposition from the parliament, into close political relations with Germany. The relationship between Great Britain and France had encouraged Italy to seize Tripoli. Russian designs on straits (to open waters from its black sea ports) were well known, and these conditions put Great Britain, France, and Russia against the Germany. Porte's policy would naturally incline toward dependence on the Berlin. Berlin-Ottoman alliance promised to isolate Russia. Ottoman-German alliance was negotiated. In exchange for money and future control over Russian territory, the Ottoman Government abandoned a neutral position and sided with Germany.
The Empire fall into a disorder with the deceleration of war along the Germany. On November 11 a conspiracy discovered in Istanbul against Germans and CUP, which some of the CUP leaders were shot. This followed the November 12 revolt in Adrlanople against German military mission. On November 13 a bomb exploded in Enver Pasha's palace, which killed five German officers but missed the Enver Pasha. These events followed on November 18 more Anti-German plots. Committees formed around the country to rid country siding Germany. Army and navy officers protested against assumption of authority by Germans. On December 4 widespread riots throughout the country. On December 13 Anti-war demonstration by women in Konak and Erzerum. Throughout December CUP dealt with mutiny among soldiers in barracks and among naval crews. The head of German Military Mission Field Marshal von der Goltz had a conspiracy against his life.
[edit] Empire with Russia
- See also: Caucasus Campaign and Persian Campaign
The military activities of the period is covered under Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. Ottoman's entrance to war greatly increased the Triple Entente's military burdens. Russia had to fight on the Caucasus Campaign alone and Persian Campaign along with the Great Britain.
İsmail Enver Pasha was set off for the Battle of Sarıkamış (Caucasus Campaign), with the intention of recapturing Batum and Kars, overrunning Georgia and occupying north-western Persia and the oil fields. Fighting the Russians in the Caucasus, however, the Ottomans lost ground—and over 100,000 soldiers—in a series of battles.
The 1917 Russian revolution gave the Ottomans a chance to regain these areas, but continued British offensives ultimately proved to be too much.
[edit] Empire with British & France
- See also: Mesopotamian campaign, Sinai and Palestine Campaign, and Battle of Gallipoli
Great Britain was obliged to defend India and her southern Persian oil territory by undertaking Mesopotamian campaign. She had also to protect Egypt against Sinai and Palestine Campaign. These campaigns strained Allied resources and relieved Germany.
Initially; Ahmed Djemal Pasha was ordered to gather an army in Palestine with which to threaten the Suez Canal;
As a response Allies—including the newly formed Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ("ANZACs")—were oppaned another front with the Battle of Gallipoli.
The Ottomans were eventually defeated due to key attacks by the British general Edmund Allenby.
[edit] Empire with Armenia
- See also: Armenian Genocide, Democratic Republic of Armenia, and Caucasus Campaign
In 1917 the regular Russian Caucasus Army deserted the frontline. In 1918, the Dashnaks of Armenian national liberation movement declared the Democratic Republic of Armenia through the Armenian Congress of Eastern Armenians (unified form of Armenian National Councils) with the dissolution of Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic. Tovmas Nazarbekian became the first Commander-in-chief of DRA. With the Tovmas Nazarbekian becoming the Commander-in-chief of the whole Armenian state, Andranik Toros Ozanian took command of war zone within Ottoman Empire.
The Armenian soldiers under Russian Empire, Armenian volunteer units, realigned themselves under the command of General Tovmas Nazarbekian, with Dro as a civilian commissioner. The frontline had three main divisions: Movses Silikyan, Adrianic and Mikhail Areshian. Another regular unit was under Colonel Korganian. There were Armenian partisian guerrilla detachments accompanying these main units. The line from Van to Erzincan was organized through these units.
In April 1918 the Ottoman 3th Army finally went on the offensive. In early May, 1918, the Ottoman army faced with the newly declared Democratic Republic of Armenia. The conflict led to the Battle of Sardarapat, the Battle of Kara Killisse (1918), and the Battle of Bash Abaran. Although the Armenians managed to inflict a defeat on the Ottomans at the Battle of Sardarapat, the Ottoman army won the later battle and scattered the Armenian army. The Republic of Armenia was forced to sign the Treaty of Batum in June, 1918. However throughout the summer of 1918, Armenians in the mountainous Karabag region, under the leadership of Andranik Toros Ozanian, established the Republic of Mountainous Armenia and resisted the Ottoman 3th army.[5] In July, Ottomans faced with the Centrocaspian Dictatorship at the Battle of Baku, with the goal of taking Baku on the Caspian Sea.
[edit] Empire in Home front
Ottoman Empire deal with the Arab Revolt. Sharif Hussein ibn Ali rebelled against the Ottoman rule during the Arab Revolt of 1916. An exchange of letters with British High Commissioner Henry McMahon convinced him that his assistance on the side of the Triple Entente would be rewarded by an Arab empire encompassing the entire span between Egypt and Persia, with the exception of imperial possessions and interests in Kuwait, Aden, and the Syrian coast. Hussein was the official leader of the Arab Revolt against the Ottomans.
During the World War I Ottoman government also faced difficulties on the home front, including isolated Armenian rebellions in eastern Anatolia that led to an order for the Tehcir Law of June 1, 1915 to February 8, 1916 (deportation) of Armenians from the region. Some academics define the deportations as the Armenian Genocide.[6] This view is disputed by the Turkish Government, which maintains that most of the Armenian mortalities were the result of conditions that had effect on World War I casualties, and the civil war within the historical roots of the region, which pushed Armenian and Muslim populations, back-and-forth within the war zone. Turkish authorities also claim that deportations (Tehcir Law) were not the main contribution to total Armenian mortality during the World War I and the claims for an organized crime against the Armenians, by Teskilati Mahsusa or the special organization were also in dispute, even if the very bad conditions of the Armenians (also some Muslims) were not.
[edit] Armistice, October 30 1918
- See also: Ottoman casualties of World War I
The armed conflicts were ended with the Armistice of Mudros.
The WWI years were a disaster to Ottoman Empire. The land loss was enormous, human loss was bigger, which Ottoman Muslim casualties was only one part of the story. The former Breslau was sunk by a mine at the entrance to the Dardanelles, on January 20th 1919. The battle cruiser Goeben was beached by British warships on the same day.
[edit] Partitioning of the Empire
The initial peace agreement with the Ottoman Empire was the Armistice of Mudros. This was followed by Occupation of Istanbul. The partitioning of the Ottoman Empire brought international conflicts which were discussed during the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. The peace agreement, Treaty of Sevres, was signed by the Ottoman Empire and Allies.
The Treaty of Sèvres presented one of the thorniest problems before the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. The text of the treaty with Ottomans was not made public until May, 1920. Contrary to general expectations, Sultanate did not terminated and allowed to retain Istanbul and a small strip of territory around the city. The shores of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles planned to be internationalized, so that the gates of the Black Sea kept open. The interior of Asia Minor (Anatolia), the first seat of Ottoman power six centuries ago, continues to be under Turkish sovereignty.
The United Kingdom obtained virtually everything it had sought—according to the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement made together with France in 1916, while the war was still going on—from the empire's partition. Its terms were admittedly severe, and they were widely criticized as vindictive. The subsequent years showed that it was also impracticable. Sèvres was the end of the Ottoman Empire.
[edit] Question of the CUP
- See also: Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919-20 and Malta exiles
Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) was the ruling party during this period. Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919-1920 were courts-martials, which the leadership of the CUP and selected former officials were court-martialled with/including the charges of subversion of the constitution, wartime profiteering, and the massacres of both Greeks and Armenians.[7] The courts-martial became a stage for political battles. The trials helped the Liberal Union root out the CUP from the political arena.
[edit] Question of the Sultanate
- See also: Occupation of Istanbul
Treaty of Sèvres was destined never to be ratified. Elections were held throughout Anatolia and with the participation of some parliamentarians, who had escaped from Istanbul, a new government was formed in Ankara. The rest of the story is the Turkish War of Independence.The Treaty of Lausanne announced the new Turkish State internationally. This new state gave the 'coup de grâce' to the Ottoman state, in 1922, with the overthrow of Sultan Mehmet VI Vahdettin by the new republican assembly of Turkey.
[edit] Question of the Caliphate
- See also: Ottoman Caliphate
Besides the control of the physical lands, another question of importance was originated from the Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman Caliphs never claimed to be religious descendant of the Prophet but they were nonetheless an important authority figure within the Ottoman Empire. Moslems of India and of Anatolia supported and recognized the Ottoman caliphate for instance. As Sultans of the Empire, the Ottoman rulers had a very strong position, but the Sultan of Morocco, the Mahdists of the Egyptian Sudan, the Senussi in the Libyan Desert, the Wahabis in central Arabia, never acknowledged the title of Caliph as being higher than the Sultans' as the leader of state. Such recognition was also not given by the Arabs of the Hedjaz, Palestine, and Syria, which contain the holy places of Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem.
The last official remnant of the empire—the title of caliphate—was constitutionally abolished on 3 March 1924. With the abolishment of the Ottoman Caliphate by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, throughout the country from Mecca to Aleppo, the Ottoman Caliph's name was replaced in the Friday liturgy by that of Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, the hereditary guardian of the holy cities of the Hedjaz, who is referred to as "The Commander of the Faithful".
[edit] References
- ^ Ion, Theodore P., "The Cretan Question," The American Journal of International Law, April, 1910, pp. 276-284
- ^ Archives Diplomatiques, third series, vol. 126, p. 127.
- ^ Notification of Neutrality
- ^ CUP Declaration of War, November 14
- ^ Mark Malkasian, Gha-Ra-Bagh": the emergence of the national democratic movement in Armenia page 22
- ^ Josh Belzman. "PBS effort to bridge controversy creates more", MSNBC, April 23, 2006. Retrieved on 2006-10-05.
- ^ (1996) Armenien und der Völkermord: Die Istanbuler Prozesse und die Türkische Nationalbewegung. Hamburg: Hamburger Edition. p. 185.
[edit] Further reading
- Lewis, Bernard (2001-08-30). The Emergence of Modern Turkey, 3, Oxford University Press, USA, 568. ISBN 0195134605.
