Star of Bethlehem

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Adoration of the Magi by Florentine painter Giotto di Bondone (1267-1337). The Star of Bethlehem is shown as a comet above the child. Giotto witnessed an appearance of Halley's Comet in 1301.
Adoration of the Magi by Florentine painter Giotto di Bondone (1267-1337). The Star of Bethlehem is shown as a comet above the child. Giotto witnessed an appearance of Halley's Comet in 1301.
See also Star of Bethlehem (plant).

The Star of Bethlehem, also called the Christmas Star or Jesus Star, is a star in Christian nativity tradition that revealed the birth of Jesus to the magi (or 'wise men') and later led them to Bethlehem. According to the Gospel of Matthew,[1] the magi were men "from the east" who were inspired by the appearance of the star to travel to Jerusalem in search of a King of the Jews.[2] There they met King Herod of Judea, who advised them that the child they sought was in Bethlehem, a nearby village. The magi then went to Bethlehem, found Jesus and his mother, paid him homage, worshipped him, gave gifts, and then returned to their "own country".[3]

Many Christians regard the star as a miraculous sign given by God to mark the birth of the Christ (or Messiah). Christian theologians claimed that the star fulfilled a prophecy, known as the Star Prophecy. In modern times, astronomers have proposed various explanations for the star, including a nova, a planet, a comet, an occultation, and a conjunction (massing of planets). The subject is a favorite at planetarium shows during the Christmas season,[4] although the Biblical account suggests that the visit of the magi took place at least several months after Jesus was born.[5] The visit is traditionally celebrated on Epiphany (January 6).[6]

Many scholars question the historicity of the story, regarding the star as a pious fiction created by the author of the Gospel of Matthew. [7]


Contents

[edit] Biblical narrative

The Gospel of Matthew states that "wise men" (Koine Greek magoi, in this context probably meaning "astronomer" or "astrologer"[8]) arrived at the court of Herod in Jerusalem and told the king of the star:

“ In the time of King Herod, after Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea, wise men from the East came to Jerusalem, asking, Where is the child who has been born king of the Jews? For we observed his star at its rising,[9] and have come to pay him homage. When King Herod heard this, he was frightened, and all Jerusalem with him; and calling together all the chief priests and scribes of the people, he inquired of them where the Messiah was to be born.[10] ”

The statement that Herod was "frightened" by what the magi said has led some readers to conclude that Herod did not know of the star before the magi arrived. However, a close reading suggests that Herod was frightened by their statement that the "king of the Jews" had been born rather than by the star itself. He understood this phrase to refer to the Messiah, a leader of the Jewish people whose coming was foretold in Old Testament prophecy. So he asked his advisors where the Messiah could be born.[11] They answered Bethlehem, birthplace of King David, and quoted the prophet Micah.[12] The king passed this information along to the magi.[13]

Adoration of the Magi, Chartres Cathedral, by Jehan de Beauce, France, 16th century.
Adoration of the Magi, Chartres Cathedral, by Jehan de Beauce, France, 16th century.
“ Then Herod secretly called for the wise men and learned from them the exact time when the star had appeared. Then he sent them to Bethlehem, saying, Go and search diligently for the child; and when you have found him, bring me word so that I may also go and pay him homage. When they had heard the king, they set out; and there, ahead of them, went the star that they had seen at its rising, until it stopped over the place where the child was. When they saw that the star had stopped, they were overwhelmed with joy.[14] ”

Matthew's account suggests that the magi knew from the star that the "king of the Jews" had already been born even before they arrived in Jerusalem. The magi presented Jesus with gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh.[1]

In a dream, the magi were warned not to return to Jerusalem, so they "left for their own country by another road".[15] When Herod realized that he had been tricked, he ordered the execution of all male children in Bethlehem age 2 and under, based on the information the magi had given him concerning the time the star first appeared.[16]

[edit] Interpretations and explanations

[edit] A fulfillment of prophecy

The ancients believed that astronomical phenomena were connected to terrestrial events. Miracles were routinely associated with the birth of important people, including the Hebrew patriarchs, as well as Greek and Roman heroes.[17] Although not referred by Matthew, the Star Prophecy[18] in the Book of Numbers was well-known at the time that that the Gospels were written. It was, for example, cited by Josephus, who believed it referred to Emperor Vespasian.[19] Origen, one of the most influential early Christian theologians, connected this prophecy with the Star of Bethlehem:

“ If, then, at the commencement of new dynasties, or on the occasion of other important events, there arises a comet so called, or any similar celestial body, why should it be matter of wonder that at the birth of Him who was to introduce a new doctrine to the human race, and to make known His teaching not only to Jews, but also to Greeks, and to many of the barbarous nations besides, a star should have arisen? Now I would say, that with respect to comets there is no prophecy in circulation to the effect that such and such a comet was to arise in connection with a particular kingdom or a particular time; but with respect to the appearance of a star at the birth of Jesus there is a prophecy of Balaam recorded by Moses to this effect: There shall arise a star out of Jacob, and a man shall rise up out of Israel.[20] ”

The magi may have decided to travel to Jerusalem when they somehow, "conjectured that the man whose appearance had been foretold along with that of the star, had actually come into the world", according to Origen.[21]

The magi are sometimes called "kings" because of the belief that they fulfill a prophecy by Isaiah concerning a journey to Jerusalem by gentile kings.[22] In the Septuagint, the Greek translation Matthew probably used, this prophecy mentions gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. In the Book of Daniel, the magi (Aramaic mag, Septuagint magoi) are portrayed as an association of scholars in Babylon.[23] Daniel, who in the book is selected chief magus, was considered "one of the greatest prophets" by the Jews, according to Josephus.[24]

While Origen argued for a naturalistic explanation, John Chrysostom viewed the star as purely miraculous: "How then, tell me, did the star point out a spot so confined, just the space of a manger and shed, unless it left that height and came down, and stood over the very head of the young child? And at this the evangelist was hinting when he said, Lo, the star went before them, till it came and stood over where the young Child was."[25]


The night sky as it appeared looking south from Jerusalem on Nov. 12, 7 BC, 6 p.m. to 9:30 p.m.
The night sky as it appeared looking south from Jerusalem on Nov. 12, 7 BC, 6 p.m. to 9:30 p.m.

[edit] An astronomical object

The fact that the magi told Herod that they saw the star "at its rising",[26] suggests that they observed an astronomical object.

In 1614, German astronomer Johannes Kepler determined that a series of three conjunctions of the planets Jupiter and Saturn occurred in the year 7 BC.[27] Although conjunctions were important in astrology, Kepler was not thinking in astrological terms. He argued that a planetary conjunction could create a nova, which he linked to the Star of Bethlehem.[27] Modern calculations show that there was always a significant gap between the two planets, so these conjunctions were not visually impressive. An ancient almanac has been found in Babylon which covers the events of this period, but it makes no specific reference to the conjunctions.[28]

Chinese and Korean stargazers observed an object thought to be a nova or a comet around 5 BC. This object was observed for over seventy days with no movement recorded. Ancient writers described comets as "hanging over" specific cities, just as the Star of Bethlehem was said to have "stood over" the "place" where Jesus was (presumably the town of Bethlehem).[29] This phrase was not used to describe other astronomical objects, so perhaps the tail of a comet was thought to point to a specific terrestrial location.

Another Star of Bethlehem candidate is Uranus, which was visible at various times, but moved too slowly to be recognized as a planet.[30] At magnitude 5, it would be unlikely to cause much interest among astrologers.

A zodiac from a 6th century mosaic at a synagogue in Beit Alpha, Israel
A zodiac from a 6th century mosaic at a synagogue in Beit Alpha, Israel

A recent hypothesis states that the star of Bethlehem was a supernova or hypernova occurring in the nearby Andromeda Galaxy. The author notes that a Type Ia or Ic supernova/hypernova occurring in the Andromeda Galaxy would have been visible directly overhead in the town of Bethlehem at the same time of the birth of Jesus. Although supernovae have been detected in Andromeda, it is extremely difficult to detect a supernova remnant in another galaxy, let alone obtain an accurate date of when it occurred. [31]

[edit] An astrological event

The use of the phrase "king of the Jews" by the magi has led many writers to link the Star of Bethlehem to astrology. In Hellenistic astrology, Jupiter was the king planet and Regulus (in the constellation Leo) was the king star.[32] As they traveled from Jerusalem to Bethlehem, the star "went before" the magi and then "stood over" the place where Jesus was. In astrological interpretations, these phrases are said to refer to retrograde motion and to stationing, i.e., Jupiter appeared to reverse course for a time, then stopped, and finally resumed its normal progression[33] (This assumes that the magi had an instrument equivalent to an astrolabe that allowed them to detect the motion of a planet between one night and the next.)

In 3-2 BC, there was a series of seven conjunctions, including three between Jupiter and Regulus and a strikingly close conjunction between Jupiter and Venus near Regulus on June 17, 2 BC.[32] "The fusion of two planets would have been a rare and awe-inspiring event", according to an influential paper by Roger Sinnott.[34]

Astronomer Michael Molnar has proposed a link between a double occultation of Jupiter by the moon in 6 BC in Aries and the Star of Bethlehem, particularly the second occulation on April 17.[35] This event was quite close to the sun and would have been difficult to observe, even with a small telescope.[36] Occultations of planets by the moon are quite common, but Firmicus Maternus, an astrologer to Roman Emperor Constantine, wrote that an occultation of Jupiter in Aries was a sign of the birth of a divine king.[35][37] "When the royal star of Zeus, the planet Jupiter, was in the east this was the most powerful time to confer kingships. Furthermore, the Sun was in Aries where it is exalted. And the Moon was in very close conjunction with Jupiter in Aries", Molnar wrote.[35] According to astrophysicist Grant Mathews, such an alignment in Aries would also have meant that the powerful leader was "destined to die at an appointed time, which ... may have been why wise men brought myrrh," an embalming fluid.[38] This set of planetary conditions reoccurs every sixty years.[35]

[edit] A historical fiction

Many historians regard the star not as a historial event, but as a pious fiction intended to tell the story of Jesus in the context of the fulfilment of prophecy. In his detailed 1993 study of the birth narratives, The Birth of the Messiah, Raymond E. Brown challenged the traditional view: "those who wish to maintain the historicity of the Matthean magi story are faced with nigh insuperable obstacles". [39] He specifies three: firstly, the intrinsic unlikelihood of the story, with unparalleled and yet unrecorded astronomical phenomena and contradictory details of the actions of King Herod; secondly, the difficulty of reconciling the Matthew account with that given in the Gospel of Luke, which makes no mention of the magi or the massacre; and thirdly, apparent conflicts with other details given in the Gospels of the ministry of Jesus (for example, the statement that all of Jerusalem was startled by the birth of the King of the Jews, compared with later ignorance of Jesus or his birth in Bethlehem).[40]

Matthew is the only one of the four gospels which mentions either the Star of Bethlehem or the magi. The Gospel of Mark, considered by modern text scholars to be the oldest of the Gospels,[41] does not include a nativity narrative or any hint that Jesus was born in Bethlehem.[42] The author of the Gospel of John also appears to be unaware of the Bethlehem nativity narratives.[43] The Gospels often described Jesus as "of Nazareth", but never as "of Bethlehem". Many scholars have concluded that Jesus was probably born in Nazareth and that the nativity narratives are influenced by the desire of the Gospel writers to portray his birth as a fulfillment of what they understood as a prophecy in the Book of Micah that the Messiah would be born in Bethlehem.[44] Raymond Brown, having studied the various astronomical explanations, concluded: "no astronomical record exists of what is described in Matthew".[45]

Matthew's description of the miracles and portents attending the birth of Jesus can be compared to stories concerning the birth of Augustus (63 BC), the first Roman emperor.[46] Linking a birth to the first appearance of a star was consistent with the popular belief each person's life was linked to a particular star.[47] Magi and astronomical events were linked in the public mind by the visit to Rome of a delegation of magi at the time of a spectacular appearance of Halley's Comet in AD 66.[29] This delegation was led by King Tiridates of Armenia, who came seeking confirmation of his title from Emperor Nero.

[edit] Determining the year Jesus was born

"Adoration of the Magi", by Jean Fouquet. This illumination is from Heures d'Étienne Chevalier. France, 15th century. The Star of Bethlehem can be seen in the top right. The soldiers and castle in the background may represent the Battle of Castillon (1453).
"Adoration of the Magi", by Jean Fouquet. This illumination is from Heures d'Étienne Chevalier. France, 15th century. The Star of Bethlehem can be seen in the top right. The soldiers and castle in the background may represent the Battle of Castillon (1453).

Which event is most plausible as an explanation of the Star of Bethlehem depends on which year is accepted as the year Jesus was born. Both Luke and Matthew wrote that Jesus was born when Herod was king. According to Josephus, Herod died shortly after a lunar eclipse. This is usually identified as the eclipse of March 13, 4 BC. Coins issued by Herod's successors show that they dated their reigns as beginning in 4 BC.[48]

According to Matthew's account, Jesus must have been born sometime between the first appearance of the Star of Bethlehem and the time the magi arrived in Herod's court. As Herod ordered the execution of boys age two and under, the star must have made its first appearance within the previous two years. There was, however, no Roman census in 6-4 BC, a key element in Luke's narrative; the Census of Quirinius took place in 6-7 AD. Some writers have suggested Luke was referring to another event such as the mass oath taking when Augustus was given the title "father of the nation" (3-2 BC).[4] Most modern scholars, however, argue that Luke was simply mistaken.[49]

Luke wrote that Jesus was "about thirty" when he began his ministry in AD 29,[50] which yields a birth year of around 3-2 BC.[51]

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b Matthew 2:11
  2. ^ Matthew 2:1-2
  3. ^ Matthew 2:11-12
  4. ^ a b Mosley, John, "Common Errors in 'Star of Bethlehem' Planetarium Shows", Planetarian, Third Quarter 1981.
  5. ^ Matthew 2:11. When the magi enter the house, Jesus is a "child" and is with his mother. Thus the forty day confinement period prescribed by Jewish law has already passed.
  6. ^ Epiphany Sermon, Rev. John Ratti, The Episcopal Church
  7. ^ For example, Paul L. Maier, "Herod and the Infants of Bethlehem", in Chronos, Kairos, Christos II, Mercer University Press (1998), 171; Geza Vermes, The Nativity: History and Legend, London, Penguin, 2006, p22; E. P. Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus, 1993, p.85; Aaron Michael Adair, "Science, Scholarship and Bethlehem's Starry Night", Sky and Telescope, Dec. 2007, pp.26-29 (reviewing astronomical theories).
  8. ^ Raymond Edward Brown, An Adult Christ at Christmas: Essays on the Three Biblical Christmas Stories, Liturgical Press (1988), page 11; Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, Eerdmans (2000), page 844.
  9. ^ The King James Version (1611) reads "star in the East".
  10. ^ Matthew 2:1-4 New Revised Standard Version (1989).
  11. ^ Matthew 2:4.
  12. ^ Matthew 2:5-6. The Old Testament version of this prophecy can be found at Micah 5:2-4.
  13. ^ Matthew 2:8.
  14. ^ Matthew 2:7-10.
  15. ^ Matthew 2:12.
  16. ^ Matthew 2:16.
  17. ^ Vermes, Geza, "The First Christmas", History Today. Dec. 2006, 56 (12), pp. 23-9.
  18. ^ Numbers 24:17.
  19. ^ Josephus, Flavius, Jewish War, 6.312-313.
  20. ^ Numbers 24:17. Origen, Contra Celsum [1], Book I, Chapter LIX.
  21. ^ Origen, Contra Celsum, Book I, Chapter LX.
  22. ^ Isaiah 60:1-7.
  23. ^ Daniel 1:20, 2:2, 2:48, 4:1, 4:9, 5:11.
  24. ^ Josephus, Flavius, Antiquities of the Jews 10.11.7). For Daniel's messianic prophecy, see Daniel 9:24-27.
  25. ^ St John Chrysostom, Homily VI: Matthew Chapter 2, Verse 1 And Matthew Chapter 2, Verse 2
  26. ^ Matthew 2:2
  27. ^ a b Mosley, John, "Common Errors in 'Star of Bethlehem' Planetarium Shows", Planetarian, Third Quarter 1981.
  28. ^ For the contrary view, i.e. that the almanac does show the conjunction was considered significant, see Ashgrove, "Triple Conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn".
  29. ^ a b Jenkins, R.M., "The Star of Bethlehem and the Comet of AD 66", Journal of the British Astronomy Association, June 2004, 114, pp. 336-43.
  30. ^ Curiosa, Deneb, "The Star of Bethlehem", 2000.
  31. ^ The Star of Bethlehem: a Type Ia/Ic Supernova in the Andromeda Galaxy. F.J. Tipler: Dept. of Mathematics and Dept. of Physics, Tulane University; New Orleans, LA 70118. 20 March 2005., [2]
  32. ^ a b Newman, Robert C., "The Star of Bethlehem: A Natural-Supernatural Hybrid?", Interdisciplinary Biblical Research Institute, 2001. A visual presentation is given here.
  33. ^ Molnar, Micheal R., Revealing the Star of Bethlehem.
  34. ^ Sinnott, Roger, "Thoughts on the Star of Bethlehem", Sky and Telescope, December 1968, pp. 384–386.
  35. ^ a b c d Molnar, Michael R., The Star of Bethlehem: The Legacy of the Magi, Rutgers University Press: 1999. ISBN 0-8135-2701-5.
  36. ^ Kidger, Mark, "The Star of Bethlehem", Cambridge Conference Correspondence, December 5, 2001.
  37. ^ Stenger, Richard, "Was Christmas star a double eclipse of Jupiter?", December 27, 2001
  38. ^ Coyne, Tom, Seeking A Star in The East, Washington Post, December 22, 2007
  39. ^ Raymond E. Brown, The Birth of the Messiah, Anchor Bible Reference Library (1993), page 188.
  40. ^ Raymond E. Brown, The Birth of the Messiah, Anchor Bible Reference Library (1993), pages 188-189.
  41. ^ Ben Witherington, The Gospel of Mark: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary, Eerdmans (2001), page 8; R. T. France, The Gospel of Mark: A Commentary on the Greek Text, Eerdmans (2002), page 16; Head, Peter M., Christology and the Synoptic Problem: An Argument for Markan priority, Cambridge, 1997, ISBN 0-521-58488-4. For a case against Markan priority, see Peabody, David B., Lamar Cope, and Allan J. McNicol, One Gospel From Two: Mark's Use of Matthew and Luke, Trinity Press International, 2002, ISBN 1-56338-352-7. The traditional view, presented by Augustine and others, was that Matthew was written first and that Mark was redacted from Matthew.
  42. ^ See Mark 6:1-4
  43. ^ See John 1:46
  44. ^ Nikkos Kokkinos, "The Relative Chronology of the Nativity in Tertullian", in Ray Summers, Jerry Vardaman and others, eds., Chronos, Kairos, Christos II, Mercer University Press (1998), page 125-6; Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar, The Acts of Jesus: The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus, HarperSanFrancisco, 1999, ISBN 0-06-062979-7. pp. 499, 521, 533 Paul L. Maier, "Herod and the Infants of Bethlehem", in Chronos, Kairos, Christos II, Mercer University Press (1998), 171
  45. ^ Raymond E. Brown, 101 Questions and Answers on the Bible, Paulist Press (2003), page 79.
  46. ^ The god Apollo was said to have conceived with Augustus' mother and there was a "public portent" indicating that a king of Rome would soon be born. (Suetonius, C. Tranquillus, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, "The Divine Augustus", Chapter 94.)
  47. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, II vi 28
  48. ^ Timothy David Barnes, “The Date of Herod’s Death,” Journal of Theological Studies ns 19 (1968), 204-19; P. M. Bernegger, “Affirmation of Herod’s Death in 4 B.C.,” Journal of Theological Studies ns 34 (1983), 526-31.
  49. ^ For example, James Douglas Grant Dunn, Jesus Remembered, (Eerdmans, 2003) p344. Similarly, Erich S. Gruen, 'The expansion of the empire under Augustus', in The Cambridge ancient history Volume 10, p157, Geza Vermes, The Nativity, Penguin 2006, p.96, W.D Davies and E. P. Sanders, 'Jesus from the Jewish point of view', in The Cambridge History of Judaism ed William Horbury, vol 3: the Early Roman Period, 1984, Anthony Harvey, A Companion to the New Testament (Cambridge University Press 2004), p221, Meier, John P., A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus. Doubleday, 1991, v. 1, p. 213, Brown, Raymond E. The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke. London: G. Chapman, 1977, p. 554, A. N. Sherwin-White, pp. 166, 167, Fergus Millar Millar, Fergus (1990). "Reflections on the trials of Jesus". A Tribute to Geza Vermes: Essays on Jewish and Christian Literature and History (JSOT Suppl. 100) [eds. P.R. Davies and R.T. White]: 355-81, Sheffield: JSOT Press.  repr. in Millar, Fergus (2006). "The Greek World, the Jews, and the East". Rome, the Greek World and the East 3: 139-163. University of North Carolina Press. 
  50. ^ Luke 3:1-3, 3:23.
  51. ^ Maranatha Church, Inc, "Birth of Christ Recalculated", 1998.

[edit] External links

  • Jenkins, R.M., "The Star of Bethlehem and the Comet of 66AD", Journal of the British Astronomy Association, June 2004, 114, pp. 336-43. This article argues that the Star of Bethlehem is a historical fiction influenced by the appearance of Halley Comet in AD 66.
  • Kiefer, James, "The Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke, Part One". Argues for the triple conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn in 7 BC as the Star of Bethlehem, explaining its close correspondence to details of Matthew.
  • Killian, Bruce A., "Venus The Star of Bethlehem", 2003. Proposes the star that led the magi to Bethlehem was a picture or sign in the heavens of a scepter in Leo, fulfilling prophecies of Jacob to Judah and Balaam to Israel.
  • Martin, Dr. Ernest L., The Star of Bethlehem: The Star that Astonished the World, (1996). Martin favors the theory that the star was a conjunction of Venus and Jupiter in 3 BC (elaborating on Roger Sinnott's 1968 thesis) and that Jesus was born in the early evening of September 11.[3] More than 600 planetariums have revised their Christmas star show to match this work.[4]
  • Molnar, Michael R., Revealing the Star of Bethlehem. Proposes that the "star" was an occultation of Jupiter by the moon in 6 BC.
  • Newman, Robert C., "The Star of Bethlehem: A Natural-Supernatural Hybrid?", Interdisciplinary Biblical Research Institute, 2001. A variation on the Sinnott thesis. Includes a table of conjunctions and star charts.
  • Griffith Observatory, a video on the star presented on MSNBC's Mysteries of the Universe.
  • Matthew 2 Biblical text on the magi and the star.
  • Star of Bethlehem Bibliography. Provides an extensive bibliography with Web links to online sources.
  • The Bethlehem Star. Gives possible scientific explanations of the Star of Bethlehem.
  • Video: Star of Bethlehem by Professor Konradin Ferrari d'Occhieppo
  • Michele Crudele, Bethlehem, Star of, Interdisciplinary Encyclopedia of Religion and Science, 2002. A summary of almost all explanations given during the centuries.
  • Open Bethlehem
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