Muslim conquest of Egypt

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Part of the Muslim conquests and Byzantine-Arab Wars

Date	639-654
Location	Egypt, North Africa
Result	Muslim victory
Territorial changes	Egypt and parts of North Africa annexed by Muslims

Belligerents

Byzantine Empire

Muslim Arabs (Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates)

v • d • e

Byzantine-Arab Wars

Early Conflicts
Mutah – Tabouk – Dathin – Firaz
Arab Conquest of Roman Syria
Qarteen – Bosra – Ajnadayn – Marj-al-Rahit – Fahl – Damascus - Maraj-al-Debaj - Emesa - Yarmouk – Jerusalem - Hazir – Aleppo
Arab Conquest of Roman Egypt
Heliopolis – Nikiou
Umayyad Conquest of North Africa
Carthage
Arab Invasions of Anatolia and Constantinople
Iron Bridge - Kahramanmaraş – Masts – 1st Constantinople – Syllaeum – 2nd Constantinople – Akroinon
Arab Campaigns in Southern Italy
Later Byzantine Campaigns

At the commencement of the Muslim conquest of Egypt, Egypt was part of the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople. However, it had been occupied just a decade before by the Persian Empire under Khosrau II (616 to 629 AD).

It was also religiously alienated. The orthodox Christianity of the Byzantines held to the doctrine of Christ having two natures, one divine and one human. In Egypt however the christological position of Miaphysitism prevailed, which supported the doctrine of Christ having only one "nature" in which Divinity and Humanity were united. Although the Christian Council of Chalcedon, held in 451, had ruled in favor of the orthodox position, Egypt had remained a hotbed of Miaphysite sentiment. So, with the restoration of Byzantine political control in 629, Emperor Heraclius began persecuting the Copts whom he considered Monophysites, expelling their patriarch (Oriental Orthodox are in fact miaphysites and not monophysites).

It was in the context of this state of affairs that an army of some 4,000 Arabs, led by Amr ibn al-As, was sent by the Caliph Umar to spread Islam in the land of the ancient pharaohs. The Arabs crossed into Egypt from Palestine in December 639 and advanced rapidly into the Nile Delta. The imperial garrisons retreated into the walled towns like Babylon Fortress, where they successfully held out for a year or more. But the Arabs sent for reinforcements and the invading army, joined by another 5,000 men in 640, defeated a Byzantine army at the Battle of Heliopolis. Amr next proceeded in the direction of Alexandria, which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed on November 8, 641. The Thebaid seems to have surrendered with scarcely any opposition.

The Age of the Caliphs Under Prophet Mohammad, 622-632 Under the Patriarchal Caliphate, 632-661 Under the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750

The ease with which this valuable province was wrenched from the Byzantine Empire appears to have been due to the treachery of the governor of Egypt, Cyrus [1], Melchite (i.e., Byzantine/Chalcedonian Orthodox, not Coptic) Patriarch of Alexandria, and the incompetence of the generals of the Byzantine forces. Cyrus had persecuted the local Coptic Christians. He is one of the authors of monothelism, a seventh century heresy, and some supposed him to have been secretly a convert to Islam.

An attempt was made in the year 645 to regain Alexandria for the Byzantine Empire, but it was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by Constans II was repulsed. From that time no serious effort was made by the Byzantines to regain possession of the country.

The Muslims were assisted by some Copts, who found the Muslims more tolerant than the Byzantines, and of these some turned to Islam. In return for a tribute of money and food for the troops of occupation, the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were excused from military service and left free in the observance of their religion and the administration of their affairs. Others sided with the Byzantines, hoping that they would provide a defense against the Arab invaders.[2]

After the negotiated surrender, taxes were raised to a level which the Egyptians found unbearable, notably during the Umayyad era. Nevertheless, during Amr's lifetime the churches and people were not subjected to further assaults and were left in peace:

On the twentieth of Maskaram Theodore and all his troops and officers [the Byzantines] set out and proceeded to the island of Cyprus, and abandoned the city of Alexandria. And thereupon 'Amr the chief of the Moslem made his entry without effort into the city of Alexandria. And the inhabitants received him with respect; for they were in great tribulation and affliction... And 'Amr became stronger every day in every field of his activity. And he exacted the taxes which had been determined upon, but he took none of the property of the churches, and he committed no act of spoliation or plunder, and he preserved them throughout all his days. ... And he increased the taxes to the extent of twenty-two batr of gold till all the people hid themselves owing to the greatness of the tribulation, and could not find the wherewithal to pay.... And none could recount the mourning and lamentation which took place in that city: they even gave their children in exchange for the great sums which they had to pay monthly. And they had none to help them, and God destroyed their hopes, and delivered the Christians into the hands of their enemies. The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu Chapters CXX-CXXI

The Arab rulers remained in control of the country from this point until 1517, when it became part of the Ottoman Empire.

[edit] References

Charles, R. H. The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text, 1916. Reprinted 2007. Evolution Publishing, ISBN 978-1-889758-87-9. [3]