Mountain Meadows massacre

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The cover of the August 13, 1859 issue of Harper's Weekly illustrating the killing field as described by Brevet Major Carleton "one too horrible and sickening for language to describe. Human skeletons, disjointed bones, ghastly skulls and the hair of women were scattered in frightful profusion over a distance of two miles." "the remains were not buried at all until after they had been dismembered by the wolves and the flesh stripped from the bones, and then only such bones were buried as lay scattered along nearest the road".

The Mountain Meadows massacre involved a mass slaughter of the Fancher-Baker emigrant wagon train at Mountain Meadows in the Utah Territory by the local Mormon militia in September 1857. It began as an attack, quickly turned into a siege, and eventually culminated on September 11, 1857, in the execution of the unarmed emigrants after their surrender. Local Paiute tribesmen recruited by the militia also participated in both the attack and the massacre.

The Arkansas emigrants were traveling to California shortly before the Utah War started. Mormons throughout the Utah Territory had been mustered to fight the United States Army, which they believed was intending to destroy them as a people. During this period of tension, rumors among the Mormons also linked the Fancher-Baker train with enemies who had participated in previous persecutions of Mormons or more recent malicious acts.^{[citation needed]}

The emigrants stopped to rest and regroup their approximately 800 head of cattle at Mountain Meadows, a valley within the Iron County Military District of the Nauvoo Legion (the popular designation for the militia of the Utah Territory). ^[1]

Initially intending to orchestrate an Indian massacre,^{[citation needed]} two men with leadership roles in local military, church and government organizations,^{[citation needed]} Isaac C. Haight and John D. Lee, conspired to lead militiamen disguised as Native Americans along with a contingent of Paiute tribesmen in an attack. The emigrants fought back and a siege ensued. Intending to leave no witnesses of Mormon complicity in the siege and also intending to prevent reprisals that would complicate the Utah War, militiamen induced the emigrants to surrender and give up their weapons. After escorting the emigrants out of their fortification, the militiamen and their tribesmen auxiliaries executed approximately 120 men, women and children.^[2] Seventeen younger children were spared.

Investigations, interrupted by the U.S. Civil War, resulted in nine indictments in 1874. Only John D. Lee was ever tried, and after two trials, he was convicted. On March 23, 1877 a firing squad executed Lee at the massacre site.

[edit] Background

Main article: Fancher party's and Mormons' backgrounds and the Mountain Meadows massacre

Brigham Young
LDS Church president,
deposed governor and
American Indian superintendent of
the Utah Territory,
regent of the pre-millennial "Kingdom of God"

In early 1857, several groups of emigrants from the northwestern Arkansas region started their trek to California, joining up on the way known as the Fancher-Baker party. The groups were mostly from Marion, Crawford, Carroll, and Johnson counties in Arkansas, assembled into a wagon train at Beller's Stand, south of Harrison, Arkansas for the purpose of emigrating to southern California. This group was initially referred to as both the Baker train and the Perkins train, but after being joined by other Arkansas trains and making its way west, was soon called the Fancher train (or party) after "Colonel" Alexander Fancher who, having already made the journey to California twice before, had become its main leader.^[3] By contemporary standards the Fancher party was prosperous, carefully organized and well-equipped for the journey.^[4] They were subsequently joined along the way by families and individuals from other states, including Missouri.^[5] This group was relatively wealthy, and planned to restock its supplies in Salt Lake City, as most wagon trains did at the time. The party reached Salt Lake City with about 120 members. In Salt Lake, there was a rumor that Parley P. Pratt's widow recognized one of the party as being present at her husband's murder.^[6]

For the decade prior the Fancher party's arrival there, Utah Territory existed as a theocracy or theodemocracy led by Brigham Young. As part of Young's vision of a pre-millennial "Kingdom of God", Young established colonies along the California Trail and Old Spanish Trail, where Mormon officials governed by "lay[ing] the ax at the root of the tree of sin and iniquity", while preserving individual rights.^[7] Two of the southern-most establishments were Parowan and Cedar City, led respectively by Stake Presidents William H. Dame and Isaac C. Haight. Haight and Dame were, in addition, the senior regional military leaders of the Mormon militia. During the period just before the massacre, known as the Mormon Reformation, Mormon teachings were dramatic and strident. The religion had undergone a period of intense persecution in the American midwest, and faithful Mormons moved west to escape persecution from the midwest towns.

[edit] Escalating tensions

George A. Smith
Apostle who met the Fancher-Baker party before touring Parowan and neighboring settlements prior to the massacre

Main article: War hysteria preceding the Mountain Meadows massacre

The Mountain Meadows massacre was caused in part by events relating to the Utah War, an 1857 deployment toward the Utah Territory of the United States Army, whose arrival there ended up being peaceful. In the summer of 1857, however, the Mormons expected an all-out invasion of apocalyptic significance. From July to September 1857, Mormon leaders and their followers prepared for a seven-year siege that was predicted by Brigham Young. Mormons were required to stockpile grain, and were prevented from selling grain to emigrants for use as cattle feed. As far-off Mormon colonies retreated, Parowan and Cedar City became isolated and vulnerable outposts. Brigham Young sought to enlist the help of Indian tribes in fighting the "Americans", encouraging them to steal cattle from emigrant trains, and to join Mormons in fighting the approaching army.

In August 1857, Mormon apostle George A. Smith, of Parowan, set out on a tour of southern Utah, instructing Mormons to stockpile grain. He met with many of the eventual participants in the massacre, including W. H. Dame, Isaac Haight, and John D. Lee. He noted that the militia was organized and ready to fight, and that some of them were eager to "fight and take vengeance for the cruelties that had been inflicted upon us in the States"^{[citation needed]}. On his return trip to Salt Lake City, Smith camped near the Fancher party. Jacob Hamblin suggested that the Fanchers stop and rest their cattle at Mountain Meadows. Brevet Major Carleton's report records Jacob Hamblin's account that the train was alleged to have poisoned a spring near Corn Creek (near present-day Kanosh, Utah) that killed 18 head of cattle and the resulted in the deaths of two or three people (including the son of Mr Robinson) who ate the dead cattle. Most witnesses said that the Fanchers were in general a peaceful party whose members behaved well along the trail.

Among Smith's party were a number of Paiute Indian chiefs from the Mountain Meadows area. When Smith returned to Salt Lake, Brigham Young met with these leaders on September 1, 1857 and encouraged them to fight against the "Americans" in the anticipated clash with the U.S. Army. The Indian chiefs were reportedly reluctant. Some scholars theorize, however, that the leaders returned to Mountain Meadows and participated in the massacre. However, it is uncertain whether they would have had time to do so.

The wagon train may have been joined by a group of eleven miners and plainsmen who called themselves "Missouri Wildcats," some of whom reportedly taunted, vandalized and "caused trouble" for Mormons and Native Americans along the route (by some accounts claiming that they had the gun that "shot the guts out of Old Joe Smith"^[8]) and stories of this spread through Mormon communities.^[9] However, it is uncertain whether the Missouri Wildcat group stayed with the slow-moving Fancher party after leaving Salt Lake City,^[10] or even existed.^[11] Either way, popular Mormon leader Parley P. Pratt had been murdered in Arkansas a few months earlier by the former husband of one of Pratt's "plural wives".

Pratt was called on a mission to the southern states and while he was on this mission, a lawsuit was filed by one Hector McLean, who accused Pratt and his wife Eleanor of kidnapping his children. McLean's children had been living with his wife's parents since their mother had (according to McLean) "abandoned" them to become Pratt's "mistress". McLean claimed that Eleanor later changed her mind and decided to "kidnap" the children. Her parents informed their son-in-law that their daughter, with the assistance of the Mormon apostle, had taken the children and fled. McLean caught up with them and recovered his children. But Pratt was exonerated by the court because the laws of that time did not recognize the kidnapping of children by the non-custodial parent as a crime. McLean then pursued Pratt to Alma, Arkansas, where he killed him. He died on 13 May 1857 and was quietly buried at what is now Fine Springs, Arkansas."^[12] Hector was later acquitted of Pratt's murder.^[13]

Rumors of Pratt's death at the hand's of the legal husband of one of his "plural wives" had only recently begun to arrive in Utah.^[14] These rumors, martial law, threats of war and limited supplies all likely influenced individual Mormons who didn't sell food to the Fancher party.

[edit] Conspiracy and siege

Main article: Conspiracy and siege of the Mountain Meadows massacre

As the Fancher party approached Mountain Meadows, several meetings were held in Cedar City and nearby Parowan by local LDS ("Latter-Day Saints") leaders pondering how to implement Young's declaration of martial law.^[15] They decided to "eliminate" the Fancher wagon train.

The hungry, somewhat dispirited Fancher party found water and fresh grazing for its livestock after reaching grassy, mountain-ringed Mountain Meadows, a widely known stopover on the old Spanish Trail, in early September. They anticipated several days of rest and recuperation there. On September 7 the party was attacked by a group of Native American Paiutes and Mormon militiamen dressed as Native Americans.^[16] The Fancher party defended itself by encircling and lowering their wagons, wheels chained together, along with digging shallow trenches and throwing dirt both below and into the wagons, which made a strong barrier. Seven emigrants were killed during the opening attack and were buried somewhere within the wagon encirclement. Sixteen more were wounded. Nearly 12 hours after the attack was initiated, an express rider was sent to Salt Lake City to inform Brigham Young.^[17]The attack continued for five days, during which the besieged families had little or no access to fresh water or game food and their ammunition was depleted.^[18]

Meanwhile, organization among the local Mormon leadership reportedly broke down.^[19]

[edit] Killings and aftermath of the massacre

Main article: Killings and aftermath of the Mountain Meadows massacre

Three (of nine) Utah Territorial militiamen of Tenth Regiment "Iron Brigade" indicted in 1874 for murder or conspiracy (Note: William H. Dame • Isaac C. Haight • William C. Stewart Ellott Willden • Samuel Jukes • George Adair, Jun. not shown) Maj. John H. Higbee, said to have shouted the command to begin the killings. According to his own story, he reluctantly participated in the massacre, only to bury the dead who he thought were victims of an "Indian attack". Maj. John D. Lee, constable, judge, and Indian Agent. Having conspired in advance with his immediate commander, Isaac C. Haight, Lee led the initial assault, and falsely offered emigrants safe passage prior to their mile-long march to the field where they were ultimately massacred. He was the only convicted participant. Philip Klingensmith, a Bishop in the church and a private in the militia. He participated in the killings, and later turned state's evidence against his fellows, after leaving the church.

On Friday, September 11, 1857, two Mormon militiamen approached the Fancher party wagons with a white flag and were soon followed by Indian agent and militia officer John D. Lee. Lee told the battle-weary emigrants that he had negotiated a truce with the Paiutes, whereby they could be escorted safely to Cedar City under Mormon protection in exchange for turning all of their livestock and supplies over to the Native Americans.^[20] Accepting this, the emigrants were led out of their fortification. When a signal was given, the Mormon militiamen turned and executed the male members of the Fancher party standing by their side. Reportedly, the militia let a group of Paiute Indians execute the women and children. The militia did not kill 17 small children who were deemed too young to relate the story. The bodies were gathered and looted for valuables, and were then left in shallow graves or on the open ground. Members of the Mormon militia were sworn to secrecy. A plan was set to blame the massacre on the Indians.

[edit] Investigations and prosecutions

Main article: Investigations and prosecutions relating to the Mountain Meadows massacre

While taking into account evidence that Brigham Young did not order the murders and the lack of direct evidence that Young condoned them, historians still question the role that local Cedar City Mormon church officials played in ordering the massacre and Young's concealment of evidence in its aftermath.^[21] Young's use of inflammatory and violent language^[22] in response to the Federal expedition added to the tense atmosphere at the time of the attack. After the massacre, Young stated in public forums that God had taken vengeance on the Fancher party.^[23] It is unclear whether Young held this view because he believed that this specific group posed an actual threat to colonists or because he believed that the group was directly responsible for past crimes against Mormons. According to historian MacKinnon, "After the [Utah] war, U.S. President James Buchanan implied that face-to-face communications with Brigham Young might have averted the conflict, and Young argued that a north-south telegraph line in Utah could have prevented the Mountain Meadows Massacre."^[24] MacKinnon suggests that hostilities could have been avoided if Young had traveled east to Washington D.C. to resolve governmental problems instead of taking a five week trip north on the eve of the Utah War for church related reasons.^[25]

[edit] Media coverage and public relations

Main articles: Mountain Meadows massacre and the media and Mountain Meadows massacre and Mormon public relations

Although the massacre was covered to some extent in the media during the 1850s,^{[citation needed]}, the first period of intense nation-wide publicity about the massacre began around 1872, after investigators obtained the confession of Philip Klingensmith, a Mormon bishop at the time of the massacre and a private in the Utah militia. In 1872, Mark Twain commented on the massacre through the lens of contemporary American public opinion in an appendix to his semi-autobiographical travel book Roughing It. In 1873, the massacre was a prominent feature of a history by T.B.H. Stenhouse, The Rocky Mountain Saints.^[26] National newspapers covered the Lee trials closely from 1874 to 1876, and his execution in 1877 was widely covered.

The massacre has been treated extensively by several historical works, beginning with Lee's own Confession in 1877, expressing his opinion that George A. Smith was sent to southern Utah by Brigham Young to direct the massacre. ^[27] In 1910, the massacre was the subject of a short book by Josiah F. Gibbs, who also attributed responsibility for the massacre to Young and Smith.^[28] The first detailed and comprehensive work using modern historical methods was The Mountain Meadows Massacre in 1950 by Juanita Brooks, a Mormon scholar who lived near the area in southern Utah. Brooks found no evidence of direct involvement by Brigham Young, but charged him with obstructing the investigation and for provoking the attack through his rhetoric.

Initially, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) denied any involvement by Mormons, and was relatively silent on the issue. In 1872, however, it excommunicated some of the participants for their role in the massacre.^{[citation needed]} Since then, the LDS Church has consistently condemned the massacre, though acknowledging involvement by local Mormon leaders. In September 2007, the LDS Church published an article in its official publications marking 150 years since the tragedy occurred.^[29].

[edit] Remembrances

Main article: Remembrances of the Mountain Meadows massacre

Starting in 1988 descendants of both the Fancher party victims and the Mormon participants collaborated to design and dedicate a monument to replace the neglected and crumbling marker on the site. There are now three monuments to the massacre. Two of these are at Mountain Meadows. Mountain Meadows Association built a monument in 1990 which is maintained by the Utah State Division of Parks and Recreation. In 1999 the Mormon Church built and maintains a second monument. [2] [3] [4]. A monument in Arkansas is a replica of Carleton's original marker maintained by the Mountain Meadows Massacre Monument Foundation.

[edit] See also

• The Mountain Meadows Massacre by Juanita Brooks (1950)
• Blood of the Prophets: Brigham Young and the Massacre at Mountain Meadows by Will Bagley (2002)
• September Dawn a film by Christopher Cain (2006)

[edit] References