Algae fuel

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Main article: Algology

Algae fuel, also called algal fuel, oilgae^[1], algaeoleum or third generation biofuel ^[2] , is a biofuel from algae. Compared with second generation biofuels, algae are high-yield high-cost (30 times more energy per acre than terrestrial crops) feedstocks to produce biofuels. Since the whole organism converts sunlight into oil, algae can produce more oil in an area the size of a two-car garage than an entire football field of soybeans.^[3]

Nowadays they cost $5–10/kg and there is active research to reduce both capital and operating costs of production so that it is commercially viable.^[4][5]

Algal fuels do not impact fresh water resources,^[6] and can use ocean and wastewater.

With the record oil price increases since 2003, competing demands between foods and other biofuel sources and the world food crisis, there is much interest in algaculture (farming algae) for making vegetable oil, biodiesel, bioethanol, biogasoline, biomethanol, biobutanol and other biofuels.

The production of biofuels to replace oil and natural gas is in active development, focusing on the use of cheap organic matter (usually cellulose, agricultural and sewage waste)^[7] in the efficient production of liquid and gas biofuels which yield high net energy gain. One advantage of many biofuels over most other fuel types is that they are biodegradable, and so relatively harmless to the environment if spilled.^[8][9][10]

The United States Department of Energy estimates that if algae fuel replaced all the petroleum fuel in the United States, it would require 15,000 square miles (40,000 square kilometers), which is a few thousand square miles larger than Maryland, or 1.3 Belgiums.^[4] This is less than 1/7th the area of corn harvested in the United States in 2000.^[11][12]

In the 2008 U.S. Department of Energy Biomass and Biofuels Update to the United States Congress (by the Office of Biomass Program)^[13] appears the move to algae fuels.^[14]

Accenture´s Biofuels’ Time of Transition: Achieving high performance in a world of increasing fuel diversity study indicates that within the next 10 years algae are going to become mainstream ^[15].

Contents 1 History 2 Factors 3 Fuels 3.1 Biodiesel 3.2 Biobutanol 3.3 Biogasoline 3.4 Methane 3.5 SVO 3.6 Hydrocracking to traditional transport fuels 4 Biofuel from algae by territory 5 Promotion 5.1 Organizations 6 Algae cultivation 6.1 Wastewater 6.2 Algal strains 6.3 Nutrients 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Footnotes 9 External links 9.1 Events, conferences and summits 9.2 News

[edit] History

Further information: Aquatic Species Program

The Aquatic Species Program was a research program in the United States launched in 1978 by President Jimmy Carter and was funded by the United States Department of Energy, ^[16]] which over the course of nearly two decades looked into the production of energy using algae, later on the aim of the program was focused to the production of bio-diesel from algae. The research program was discontinued by the Clinton administration in 1996.^{[citation needed]} The DOE research staff compiled their work and conclusions into a report that was published in July 1998.

In 2008, Time Magazine voted Isaac Berzin as one of the world's most influential for 2008 for his ability to turn a dream of an oil-free future into a reality through GreenFuel, the company he founded in Boston in 2001.

[edit] Factors

Dry algae factor is the percentage of algae cells in relation with the media where is cultured, e.g. if the dry algae factor is 50%, one would need 2 kg of wet algae (algae in the media) to get 1 kg of algae cells.

Lipid factor is the percentage of vegoil in relation with the algae cells needed to get it, i.e. if the algae lipid factor is 40%, one would need 2.5 kg of algae cells to get 1 kg of oil.

[edit] Fuels

The vegoil algae produce can then be harvested and converted into biodiesel; the algae’s carbohydrate content can be fermented into bioethanol.^[17]

[edit] Biodiesel

Currently most research into efficient algal-oil production is being done in the private sector, but predictions from small scale production experiments bear out that using algae to produce biodiesel may be the only viable method by which to produce enough automotive fuel to replace current world diesel usage.^[18]

Microalgae have much faster growth-rates than terrestrial crops. The per unit area yield of oil from algae is estimated to be from between 5,000 to 20,000 gallons per acre, per year (4.6 to 18.4 l/m² per year); this is 7 to 30 times greater than the next best crop, Chinese tallow (699 gallons).^[19]

Algae can also grow on marginal lands, such as in desert areas where the groundwater is saline.^[20]

The difficulties in efficient biodiesel production from algae lie in finding an algal strain with a high lipid content and fast growth rate that isn't too difficult to harvest, and a cost-effective cultivation system (i.e., type of photobioreactor) that is best suited to that strain.

Another obstacle preventing widespread mass production of algae for biofuel production has been the equipment and structures needed to begin growing algae in large quantities. Diversified Energy Corporation have avoided this problem by taking a different approach, and growing the algae in thin walled polyethylene tubing called Algae Biotape, similar to conventional drip irrigation tubing, which can be incorporated into a normal agricultural environment.^[21]

Open-pond systems for the most part have been given up for the cultivation of algae with high-oil content.^[22] Many believe that a major flaw of the Aquatic Species Program was the decision to focus their efforts exclusively on open-ponds; this makes the entire effort dependent upon the hardiness of the strain chosen, requiring it to be unnecessarily resilient in order to withstand wide swings in temperature and pH, and competition from invasive algae and bacteria. Open systems using a monoculture are also vulnerable to viral infection. The energy that a high-oil strain invests into the production of oil is energy that is not invested into the production of proteins or carbohydrates, usually resulting in the species being less hardy, or having a slower growth rate. Algal species with a lower oil content, not having to divert their energies away from growth, have an easier time in the harsher conditions of an open system.

Some open sewage ponds trial production has been done in Marlborough, New Zealand.^[23]

In a closed system (not exposed to open air) there is not the problem of contamination by other organisms blown in by the air. The problem for a closed system is finding a cheap source of sterile carbon dioxide (CO₂). Several experimenters have found the CO₂ from a smokestack works well for growing algae.^[24][25] To be economical, some experts think that algae farming for biofuels will have to be done next to power plants, where they can also help soak up the pollution.^[20]

A feasibility study using marine microalgae in a photobioreactor is being done by The International Research Consortium on Continental Margins at the International University Bremen.^[26]

Research into algae for the mass-production of oil is mainly focused on microalgae; organisms capable of photosynthesis that are less than 0.4 mm in diameter, including the diatoms and cyanobacteria; as opposed to macroalgae, e.g. seaweed. However, some research is being done into using seaweeds for biofuels, probably due to the high availability of this resource.^[27] This preference towards microalgae is due largely to its less complex structure, fast growth rate, and high oil content (for some species). Some commercial interests into large scale algal-cultivation systems are looking to tie in to existing infrastructures, such as coal power plants or sewage treatment facilities. This approach not only provides the raw materials for the system, such as CO₂ and nutrients; but it changes those wastes into resources.

Aquaflow Bionomic Corporation of New Zealand announced that it has produced its first sample of homegrown bio-diesel fuel with algae sourced from local sewerage ponds.

The Department of Environmental Science at Ateneo de Manila University in the Philippines, is working on producing biofuel from algae, using a local species of algae.^[28]

NBB’s Feedstock Development program is addressing production of algae on the horizon to expand available material for biodiesel in a sustainable manner ^[29].

[edit] Biobutanol

Main article: Butanol fuel

Existing gasoline engines can use butanol as fuel without any modifications.

Butanol can be made from algae or diatoms using only a solar powered biorefinery. This fuel has an energy density similar to, but greater than that of gasoline (petroleum gasoline).

The green waste made from the algae oil extraction can be used to produce butanol.

[edit] Biogasoline

Main article: Biogasoline

Biogasoline can be produced from algae.

[edit] Methane

Through the use of algaculture grown organisms and cultures, various polymeric materials can be broken down into methane.^[30]

[edit] SVO

The algal-oil feedstock that is used to produce biodiesel can also be used for fuel directly as "Straight Vegetable Oil", (SVO). The benefit of using the oil in this manner is that it doesn't require the additional energy needed for transesterification, (processing the oil with an alcohol and a catalyst to produce biodiesel). The drawback is that it does require modifications to a normal diesel engine. Transesterified biodiesel can be run in an unmodified modern diesel engine, provided the engine is designed to use ultra-low sulfur diesel, which, as of 2006, is the new diesel fuel standard in the United States.

[edit] Hydrocracking to traditional transport fuels

Main articles: Vegetable oil refining and Green crude

Vegetable oil can be used as feedstock for an oil refinery where methods like hydrocracking or hydrogenation can be used to transform the vegetable oil into standard fuels like gasoline and diesel.^[31]

[edit] Biofuel from algae by territory

Main article: List of algal fuel producers

[edit] Promotion

The Ukraine Cabinet plans to produce biofuel of a special type of alga^[32] .

[edit] Organizations

Algal Biomass Organization (ABO) is formed by Boeing Commercial Airplanes, A2BE Carbon Capture Corporation ^[33], National Renewable Energy Labs, Institution of Oceanography, Benemann Associates ^[34], Mont Vista Capital ^[35] and Montana State University.

Global air carriers Air New Zealand, Continental, Virgin Atlantic Airways, and biofuel technology developer UOP LLC, a Honeywell company, will be the first wave of aviation-related members, together with Boeing, to join Algal Biomass Organization. ^[36].

Twenty-five airlines went bust or stopped operations in the first six months of 2008 and more could fold as fuel prices soar, aviation industry association IATA has warned ^[37]. Algal jet fuel can be used as alternative: IATA recognizes that aircraft are long lived and will be using kerosene or kerosene-type fuels for many years. It supports research, development & deployment into alternative fuels that produce less GHG emissions over their life cycle and do not compete for land with fuel crops. IATA’s goal is for its members to be using 10% alternative fuels by 2017^[2].

[edit] Algae cultivation

Algae grow rapidly and can have a high percentage of lipids, or oils. They can double their mass several times a day and produce at least 15 times more oil per acre than alternatives such as rapeseed, palms, soybeans, or jatropha. Moreover, algae-growing facilities can be built on coastal land unsuitable for conventional agriculture.

The hard part about algae production is growing the algae in a controlled way and harvesting it efficiently.

Most companies pursuing algae as a source of biofuels are pumping nutrient-laden water through plastic tubes (called "bioreactors" ) that are exposed to sunlight (and so called photobioreactors or PBR).

Running a PBR is more difficult than a open pond, and more costly.

[edit] Wastewater

There is an option, which is currently being researched at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution – use of wastewater for breeding algae. The wastewater from domestic and industrial sources contain rich organic compounds, which accelerate the growth of algae.^[17]

[edit] Algal strains

Main articles: :Category:High lipid content microalgae and SERI microalgae culture collection

• Botryococcene
• Chlorella
• Dunaliella tertiolecta
• Gracilaria.
• Pleurochrysis carterae (also called CCMP647)^[38] .
• Sargassum, with 10 times the output volume of gracilaria.^[39]

[edit] Nutrients

Main article: Algal nutrient solutions

Fertilizers, like nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), and potassium (K), are important for plant growth and are called nutrients. Silica and iron may also be considered important marine nutrients as their lack can limit the amount of productivity in an area.^[40]

One good source of micronutrients for algae is azomite, a silica clay, chemically a hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS).^[41] It is a natural volcanic ash (rhyolitic tuff breccia) sourced from Utah.^[42]

Another possible source is sewer treatment effluent, full of nutrients and discarded every day.

Organic waste cannot be fed directly to algae. Waste must first be transformed into fertilizer through anaerobic digestion by anaerobic bacteria. Otherwise, undigested waste will infect the algae in the reactor. In a biogas facility, organic waste is converted to a mixture of CO2, methane, and organic fertilizer. Organic fertilizer that comes out of digester is liquid, but it must be cleaned of particles and sterilized.

Green Star Products, Inc. announced its development of a micronutrient formula to increase the growth rate of algae. According to the company, its new formula can increase the daily growth rate by 34% and can double the amount of algae produced in one growth cycle.^[43]

[edit] See also

• A.B.E. process
• Aquatic Species Program
• Algaculture
• Auburn University
• Brunswick Community College
• Biobutanol
• Bioplastic
• Climate crisis
• Energy Independence and Security Act
• First generation biofuels
• Fischer-Tropsch process
• Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008
• GreenFuel
• International Renewable Energy Alliance
• Jet biofuel
• Ocean thermal energy conversion
• Office of Fuels Development
• Photobioreactor
• Phytoplankton
• Second generation biofuels
• Spirulina
• Thermal depolymerization
• Union of Concerned Scientists

[edit] References

• Making Algae Biodiesel at Home, Making Biodiesel Books.

[edit] Footnotes

[edit] External links

• Biodiesel from Algae (NREL).
• Algal Biomass Organization
• Video of Algae Farm
  • Algae Biomass Summit.
• Remarks to the Algae Biomass Summit (EERE).
• National Algae Association.
• Work on biofuels and Better Than Corn? Algae Set to Beat Out Other Biofuel Feedstocks (Worldwatch Institute).
• Biofuelsdatabase.org (University of Minnesota).
• Bio-Hydrocarbons from Algae -Impacts of temperature, light and salinity on algae growth (RIRDC).
• Algae system transforms greenhouse emissions into green fuel (MIT/MITEI).
• Phyco, algal fuel wiki
• Biodiesel Group (University of New Hampshire)
• National Defense Center of Excellence for Research in Ocean Sciences (CEROS)
• Algal Fuel Initiative and Algal commercialization (UCSD)
• Algae as a Biodiesel Feedstock: A Feasibility Assessment (Center for Microfibrous Materials Manufacturing, Department of Chemical Engineering, Auburn University)
• Widescale Biodiesel Production from Algae (University of New Hampshire).
• Krishnamurthy Institute of Algology.

[edit] Events, conferences and summits

• Algae Biofuel Summit (Report).
• Solar Biofuel Conference.

[edit] News

• Department of Defense and NASA Look to Fuel Jets with Algal Fuels.
• New Algae Trade Group Forms - Algal Biomass Organization (Cleantech.com)
• Inaugural Algae Biomass Summit a Success
• Department of Energy Remarks at Algae Biomass Summit
• Bioenergy from the Scum of the Earth: Biodiesel and Carbon Capture through Algae Bioreactor, Allianz Knowledge, June 2008
• First Algae Biodiesel Plant Goes Online: April 1, 2008.
• A Promising Oil Alternative: Algae Energy (The Washington Post)
• German scientists see use for algae in biofuels.
• Biodiesel production to begin soon.
• Pond-Powered Biofuels: Turning Algae into America's New Energy (Popular Mechanics).
• Solazyme hopes to begin mass-producing Soladiesel at a competitive price within three years.
• Algae: 'The ultimate in renewable energy' (CNN).
• Biofuels Media London Conference
• "A replacement for oil"
• World’s First Sample Of Homegrown Bio-Diesel From Algae, Aquaflow Bionomic Corporation
• Brunswick Community College (BCC) Creates Algae For Biodiesel.

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