Pope Leo XIII
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| Leo XIII | |
|---|---|
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| Birth name | Vincenzo Gioacchino Raffaele Luigi Pecci |
| Papacy began | February 20, 1878 |
| Papacy ended | July 20, 1903 |
| Predecessor | Pius IX |
| Successor | Pius X |
| Born | March 2, 1810 Carpineto Romano, Italy |
| Died | July 20, 1903 (aged 93) Apostolic Palace, Rome, Italy |
Pope Leo XIII (March 2, 1810—July 20, 1903), born Count Vincenzo Gioacchino Raffaele Luigi Pecci, was the 256th Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, reigning from 1878 to 1903, succeeding Pope Pius IX. Reigning until the age of 93, he was the oldest pope, and had the third longest pontificate, behind Pius IX and John Paul II. He is known as the "Pope of the Working Man" and "The Social Pope".
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[edit] Early life
Born in Carpineto Romano, near Rome, he was the sixth of the seven sons of Count Lodovico Pecci and his wife Anna Prosperi Buzi. He received his doctorate in theology in 1836 and doctorates of civil and Canon Law in Rome also. While in the minor orders, he was appointed domestic prelate to Pope Gregory XVI in January 1837. He was ordained priest on 31 December 1837 by the Vicar of Rome, became titular archbishop of Damietta in 1843, and apostolic nuncio to Belgium on 28 January 1843. In that country, the school question was then sharply debated between the Catholic majority and the Liberal minority. Pecci encouraged the struggle for Catholic schools, yet he was able to win the good will of the Court, not only of the pious Queen Louise, but also of King Leopold I, strongly Liberal in his views. The new nuncio succeeded in uniting the Catholics. Upon his initiative, a Belgian College in Rome was opened in 1844.
Pecci was named papal assistant in 1843. He first achieved note as the popular and successful Archbishop of Perugia from 1846 till 1877, during which period he had to cope, among others, with the earthquake and subsequent famine that hit Umbria in 1854. In addition to his post in Perugia, he was appointed Cardinal-Priest of S. Crisogono in 1853.
In August 1877, on the death of Cardinal De Angelis, Pope Pius IX appointed him camerlengo, so that he was obliged to reside in Rome. Pope Pius died 7 February 1878, and during his closing years the Liberal press had often insinuated that the Italian Government should take a hand in the conclave and occupy the Vatican. However the Russo-Turkish War and the sudden death of Victor Emmanuel II (9 January 1878) distracted the attention of the government, the conclave proceeded as usual, and after the three scrutinies Cardinal Pecci was elected by forty-four votes out of sixty-one.
[edit] Theology
The pontificate of Leo XIII was theologically influenced by the Ecumenical Council Vatican One, (1869.-1870) which ended only eight years earlier. Leo issued some 46 apostolic letters and encyclicals dealing with central issues in the areas marriage and family and state and society.
[edit] Thomism
As Pope, he used all his authority for a revival of Thomism, the theology of Thomas Aquinas. On August 4, 1879, in Aeterni Patris, Leo recommended Thomas Aquinas as a model for theological and philosophical studies. [1]
[edit] Scriptures
In his 1893 encyclical Providentissimus Deus, he described the importance of scriptures for theological study, an important encyclical for Catholic theology and its relation to the bible, as Pope Pius XII pointed out fifty years later in his encyclical Divino Afflante Spiritu. [2] In Providentissimus Deus, Leo gave new encouragement to Bible study while warning against rationalist interpretations which deny the inspiration of Scripture:
"For all the books which the Church receives as sacred and canonical, are written wholly and entirely, with all their parts, at the dictation of the Holy Ghost: and so far is it from being possible that any error can co-exist with inspiration, that inspiration not only is essentially incompatible with error, but excludes and rejects it as absolutely and necessarily as it is impossible that God Himself, the supreme Truth, can utter that which is not true." (Providentissimus Deus)
[edit] Ecumencial efforts
Pope Leo XIII was fostering ecumenical relations leading to the reintegration of the Armenian Church into the Catholic Church in 1879. He opposed efforts to latinize the Eastern Rite Churches, stating that they constitute a most valuable ancient tradition and symbol of the divine unity of the Catholic Church. His 1894 encyclical Praeclara Gratulationis praised the cultural and liturgical diversity of expressions of faith within the Church . In Orientalum Dignitatis he repeated the need to preserve and cultivate diversity. [3] On June 29, 1896, Leo XIII issued the encyclical Satis Cognitum, in which he invited separated brothers and sisters to join the Catholic Church. During his pontificate, major conversions continued, in England under the influence Cardinal John Henry Newman. Efforts to draw the Anglican communities closer to the Catholic Church experienced a set-back, when the Vatican announced in 1896 after a historical analysis, that the Apostolic Succession of Anglican Bishops was not completely secured, meaning that several but not all Anglican bishops were not properly ordained. [4] However, Leo managed to improve relations with the Orthodox Church with his open approach [5] The 1896 bull Apostolicae Curae declared the ordination of deacons, priests, and bishops in Anglican churches (including the Church of England) invalid, while granting recognition to ordinations in the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches although they were considered illicit.
[edit] Theological research
Leo XIII is credited with great efforts in the areas of scientific and historical analysis. He opened the Vatican Archives and personally fostered a twenty volume comprehensive scientific study of the Papacy by Ludwig von Pastor, an Austrian historian. [6] He entrusted the Dominican order with a text critical edition of the collective works of Thomas Aquinas, furthered the career of noted scholars like Franz Ehrle and John Henry Newman, whom he elevated to the College of Cardinals. He is the founder of the Catholic University of America in 1889.
His 1899 apostolic letter Testem Benevolentiae condemned Americanism, an alledged American modernistic view, meaning that the teachings of the Church must be adapted to American society. Leo condemned the view that Catholic dogmas, which seem to be contrary to the American experience, should be left out, and, that natural virtues are more important than supernatural ones. [7] American bishops led by Cardinal James Gibbons of Baltimore thanked him and expressed gratitude for setting the record straight Gibbons however pointed out, that no Catholic in the USA held that view. [8] When, at the end of the pontificate of Leo XIII in 1878, the papacy had regained much of its prestige and authority, [9] his theological teachings had contributed to it.
[edit] Mariology
Leo XIII is clearly concerned about attempts to destroy the faith in Christ, and, if possible, to ban him from the face of the earth [10] The destruction of the ethical order will lead to disaster and war, so Leo XIII. He dedicates the human race to the Immaculate Heart of Jesus. But the re-Christianisation is not possible without Mary, so Leo XIII. In ten encyclicals on the rosary he promulgates Marian devotion. In his encyclical on the fiftieth anniversary of the Dogma of the Immaculate Conception, he stresses her role in the redemption of humanity, mentioning Mary as Mediatrix and Co-Redemptrix.
[edit] Mediatrix
Leo XIII is the fist Pope to fully embrace the concept of Mary as mediatrix. In his writings, Leo XIII fully embraces the concept of Mary mediating all graces. In 1883 he writes that nothing is as salvific and powerful as asking for the support of the virgin, the mediator of peace with God and of heavenly graces. [11] In his rosary encyclical Octobri Mense, he writes that Mary is administrator of graces on earth, part of a new salvation order. [12] In Dei Matris he states that Mary is our mediator because Christ our Lord is also our brother [13] And, in Jucunda Semper, he states, that the deepest reason, why we look for the protection of Mary through prayer, is most certainly her office as mediator of divine grace. [14] In Augustissimae Virginis, he states, Calling on Mary is the best way to be heard by God and to find his grace [15] Leo XII in clear words thus repearedly defined the papal ground for the doctrine of mediatrix.
[edit] Co-Redemptrix
The views of Pope Leo XIII regarding Mary as a redeemer with Christ, rely on Thomas Aquinas. From him he borrows the notion, that Mary, in the hour of Annunciation assumed the role of a helper in the mystery of redemption. Thus All Christians are born through Mary. With Jesus, Mary carried all in her womb. Therefore all are her children. [16]
[edit] Influences
Leo XIII recalled Louis de Montfort whom he beatified on the very day of his own golden jubilee as a priest.[17] He (as did later Pius X) applied the Marian analysis of Montfort to the analysis of the Church as a whole. [18] His mariology was greatly influenced by Thomas Aquinas, especially his view of Mary’s role in the annunciation. [19]
Leo is considered to be one of the most intelligent popes and his teachings are a possible reflection of that: The style is crisp, short but very clear. A centennial after his death, he is often quoted and used, most recently by Pope Benedict XVI and John Paul II, both of whom, however, did not display "the Marian courage and confidence" of Leo XII in the areas of Mediatrix and Co-Redemptrix.
Leo actively employed his papal authority to support the veneration of Mary in places of her apparitions. [20] In 1879, he crowned Our Lady of La Salette. Upon the blessing and opening of the Church of our Lady in Lourdes, he issued an apostolic writing Parte humanae generi, supporting pilgrimages to Lourdes and other Marian shrines. He declared the Madonna of Monserat to be the patron of Catalonia, and instituted the Feast of the Miraculous Medal in 1894. He condemned heresies about the Immaculate conception [21] and discussed the relation of Saint Joseph to Mary in an 1889 encyclical. [22]
[edit] Social Teachings
[edit] Church and State
Leo XIII worked to encourage understanding between the Church and the modern world, though he preferred a cautious view on freedom of thought, stating that "is quite unlawful to demand, defend, or to grant unconditional freedom of thought, or speech, of writing or worship, as if these were so many rights given by nature to man" Leo’s social teachings are based on the Catholic premise, that God is the Creator of the world and its Ruler. Eternal law commands the natural order to be maintained, and forbids that it be disturbed; men’s destiny is far above human things and beyond the earth [23] Human nature is stained by original sin, and is therefore more disposed to vice than to virtue. He opposed notions of marriage as a commercial contract, divorce, and education without religion, a State without God [24] He rejected some forms of egalitarianism: "People differ in capacity, skill, health, strength; and unequal fortune is a necessary result of unequal condition. Such inequality is far from being disadvantageous either to individuals or to the community."[25]All men are equal in regards to their common origin and nature, or the last end which each one has to attain, or the rights and duties which are thence derived. [26] Leo XIII predicts, that if state authorities do not hee these eternal truth, if they permit,” the fear of God and reverence for divine laws being taken away”, overthrow of the existing order and of the authorities themselves will occur. Attempts are under way he claims by communists, socialists and Freemasons. [27] But, whoever strive against the order which Divine Providence has constituted pay usually the penalty of their pride, and meet with affliction and misery where they rashly hoped to find all things prosperous and in conformity with their desires. Humanum Genus 28Obedience to God is a teaching which supports civil authorities, because Church teaching about the divine origin of authority civil authority, and fosters obedience to it. [28]
[edit] Rerum Novarum
His encyclicals changed Church positions on relations with temporal authorities, and, in the 1891 encyclical Rerum Novarum addressed for the first time social inequality and social justice issues with Papal authority, focusing on the rights and duties of capital and labour. He was greatly influenced by Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler, a German bishop who openly propagated siding with the suffering working classes [29] Since Leo XIII, Papal teachings expand on the right and obligation of workers and the limitations of private property: Pope Pius XI Quadragesimo Anno, the Social teachings of Pope Pius XII on a huge range of social issues, John XXIII Mater et Magistra in 1961, Pope Paul VI, the encyclical Populorum Progressio on World development issues, and Pope John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, commemorating the 100th anniversary of Rerum Novarum. Leo XIII had argued that both capitalism and communism are flawed. Rerum Novarum introduced the idea of subsidiarity into Catholic social thought. A full list of all of Leo's encyclicals can be found in the List of Encyclicals of Pope Leo XIII.
[edit] Papacy
To be worked on to avoid duplication with above text
Leo XIII worked to encourage understanding between the Church and the [[modern world. When he firmly re-asserted the scholastic doctrine that science and religion co-exist, he required the study of Thomas Aquinas[30] and opened the Vatican Secret Archives to qualified researchers, among whom was the noted historian of the Papacy Ludwig von Pastor.
Leo XIII was the first Pope to come out strongly in favour of the French Republic, upsetting many French monarchists. In his relations with the Italian state, Leo XIII continued the Papacy's self-imposed incarceration in the Vatican stance, and continued to insist that Italian Catholics should not vote in Italian elections or hold elected office. In his first consistory in 1879 he elevated his older brother Giuseppe a cardinal.
Leo XIII was the first Pope of whom a sound recording was made. The recording can be found on a compact disc of Alessandro Moreschi's singing; a recording of his performance of the Ave Maria is available on the web. He was also the first Pope to be filmed on the motion picture camera. He was filmed by its inventor, W. K. Dickson, and blessed the camera afterward.
Leo XIII brought normalcy back to the Church after the tumultuous years of Pius IX. Leo's intellectual and diplomatic skills helped regain much of the prestige lost with the fall of the Papal States. He tried to reconcile the Church with the working class, particularly by dealing with the social changes that were sweeping Europe. The new economic order had resulted in the growth of an impoverished working class, with increasing anti-clerical and socialist sympathies. Leo helped reverse this trend.
Under Bismarck, the anti-Catholic kulturkampf in Germany led to massive reprisals against the Church. Under Leo, the anti-Catholic measures subsided. The Centre Party in Germany was largely a Catholic creation and was a positive force for social change. It was encouraged by Leo's support for social welfare legislation and the rights of working people. Leo's forward-looking approach encouraged Catholic Action in other European countries where the social teachings of the Church were incorporated into the agenda of Catholic parties, particularly the Christian Democratic Parties, which became an acceptable alternative to socialist parties. Leo's social teachings were reiterated throughout the 20th century by his successors.
While Leo was no radical in either theology or politics, his papacy did move the Church back to the mainstream of European life. Considered a great diplomat, he managed to improve relations with Russia, Prussia, German France, England and other countries. However, in light of a hostile anti-Catholic climate in Italy, he continued the policies of Pius IX towards Italy, without major modifications. [31] He had to defend the freedom of he Church against Italian persecutions and attacks in the area of education, expropriation and violation of Catholic Churches, legal measures against the Church and brutal attacks, culminating in anticlerical groups attempting to throw the body of the deceased Pope Pius IX into the Tiber river on July 13, 1881. [32] The Pope even considered moving the papacy to Trieste or Salzburg, two cities in Austria, an idea, which the Austrian monarch Franz Josef I gently rejected. [33]
His favorite poets were Virgil and Dante.[34]
[edit] Canonizations and beatification
He canonized the following saints:
- 1881: Clare of Montefalco (d. 1308), John Baptist de Rossi (1696-1764), and Lawrence of Brindisi (d. 1619)
- 1883: Benedict Joseph Labre (1748-1783)
- 1888: Seven Holy Founders of the Servite Order, Peter Claver (1561-1654), John Berchmans (1599-1621), and Alphonsus Rodriguez (1531-1617)
- 1890: Blessed Giovenale Ancina (1545-1604)
- 1897: Anthony M. Zaccaria (1502-1539) and Peter Fourier of Our Lady (1565-1640)
- 1900: John Baptist de la Salle (1651-1719) and Rita of Cascia (1381-1457)
In addition, he beatified Gerard Majella in 1893 and Edmund Campion in 1886.
[edit] Relations with Russia [35]
Pope Leo XIII began his pontificate with a friendly letter to Tsar Alexander II, in which he reminded the Russian monarch of the millions of Catholics living in his empire, who would like to be good Russian subjects, provided their dignity is respected. He appealed to the generosity of the Tsar, since Vatican-Russian relations were at a low point. The Tsar replied in an equally friendly manner and promised actions towards equal treatment of all Catholics in the empire. As during the pontificate of Pope Pius IX, this turned out to be relative, since most problems were at the local level. As negotiations started, Russian demands for the use of Russian language in Catholic Churches including the Polish and Lithuanian provinces, was unacceptable to the Vatican. Pope Leo XIII threatened to appeal directly to all Catholics in Russia. Some progress was made in the occupation of vacant Episcopal sees, but an emotional breakthrough was the Papal encyclical from December 28, 1878, against nihilism and socialism and radicalism, which, was dear to the Russian monarch, who was under constant pressure from nihilist and socialist forces. Repeated assassination attempts against Alexander II gave the Pope opportunity to repeat his warnings, which were read in all Catholic Churches.
After the assassination of Alexander II, his successor, the Pope sent a high ranking representative to the coronation of his successor. Alexander III was grateful and asked for all religious forces to unify. He asked the Pope to ensure that his bishops abstain from political agitation. Relations improved further, when Pope Leo XIII, due to Italian considerations, distanced the Vatican from the Rome- Vienna, Berlin alliance and helped to facilitate an rapprochement between Paris and St. Petersburg. Meanwhile the Ruthenians continued to be persecuted and Rome was not able to assist much. Russia began to protest against Church uses by Polish groups for anti-Russian activities, and the Pope found himself in the same dilemma as his predecessor Pius IX. He was personally attacked for sacrificing Polish interest in the language dispute. Russia in turn accused its Catholics of being disloyal citizens, without attacking the Pope himself.
After the elevation of Tsar Nicolas II in 1894, Pope Leo XIII was able to reach additional agreements in 1896, which resulted in better conditions for the faithful, numerous specific dispensations and permits, and additional appointments of bishops. However, he was not able to reopen the nunciature in St. Petersburg. His pontificate ended with atmospheric improvements between the Vatican and Russia.
[edit] Relations with the United Kingdom and the Americas
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Among the activities of Leo XIII that were important for the English-speaking world we might certainly count the encyclical "Apostolicæ Curæ" of 1896 on the non-validity of the Anglican orders. Furthermore, Leo restored the Scottish hierarchy in 1878. In British India, he established a Catholic hierarchy in 1886, and regulated some long-standing conflicts with the Portuguese authorities.
The United States at many moments in time attracted the attention and admiration of Pope Leo. He confirmed the decrees of the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore (1884), and raised to the cardinalate Archbishop Gibbons of that city in 1886. Leo was not present at Washington on the occasion of the foundation of The Catholic University of America. His role in South America will also be remembered, especially the First Plenary Council of Latin America held at Rome in 1899, and his encyclical of 1888 to the bishops of Brazil on the abolition of slavery.
American newspapers criticized Pope Leo because they claimed that he was attempting to gain control of American public schools. One cartoonist drew Leo as a fox unable to reach grapes that were labeled for American schools; the caption read "Sour grapes!"
[edit] Death
Leo XIII was the first Pope to be born in the 19th century. He was also the first to die in the 20th century: he lived to the age of 93, the longest living pope. At the time of his death, Leo XIII was the second-longest reigning successor of Peter, exceeded only by his immediate predecessor, Pius IX. Leo was not entombed in St. Peter's Basilica, as all popes after him were, but instead at St. John Lateran, a church in which he took a particular interest.
[edit] Audiences
- While on a pilgrimage with her father and sister in 1887, the future Saint Thérèse of Lisieux during a general audience with Pope Leo XIII, asked him to allow her to enter the Carmelite order. Even though she was strictly forbidden to speak to him because she was told it would prolong the audience too much, in her autobiography, Story of a Soul, she wrote that after she kissed his slipper and he presented his hand, instead of kissing it, she took it in her own hand and said through tears, "Most Holy Father, I have a great favor to ask you. In honor of your Jubilee, permit me to enter Carmel at the age of 15!" Pope Leo XIII answered, "Well, my child, do what the superiors decide." Thérèse replied, "Oh! Holy Father, if you say yes, everybody will agree!" Finally, the Pope said, "Go... go... You will enter if God wills it" [italics hers] after which time two guards lifted Thérèse (still on her knees in front of the Pope) by her arms and carried her to the door where a third gave her a medal of the Pope. Shortly thereafter, the Bishop of Bayeux authorized the prioress to receive Thérèse, and in April 1888, she entered Carmel at the age of 15.
- While known for his cheerful personality, Leo also had a gentle sense of humor as well. During one of his audiences, a man claimed to have had the opportunity to see Pius IX at one of his last audiences before his death in 1878. Upon hearing the remarkable story, Leo smiled and replied, "If I had known that you were so dangerous to popes, I would have postponed this audience further".
- He played chess to a fairly high level, although a game attributed to him 1875[1] seems not to be genuine as it duplicates an earlier game Ilya Shumov vs Carl Friedrich Von Jaenisch.[2]
[edit] See also
[edit] Literature
- Remigius Bäumer et.al Marienlexikon, Eos, St.Ottilien, 1992
- Eamon Duffy, Saints and Sinners, A History of the Popes, Yale University Press, 1997
- August Franzen, Remigius Bäumer, Papstgeschichte, Herder Freiburg, 1988
- O'Reilly, Bernard. Life of Leo XIII - From An Authentic Memoir - Furnished By His Order. 1887. New York: Charles L. Webster & Company.
- Thérèse, of Lisieux, Saint. Story of a Soul - The Autobiography of St. Thérèse of Lisieux Third Edition 1996. Washington, DC: ICS Publications. Translated from the original manuscripts by John Clarke, O.C.D.
- Josef Schmidlin, Papstgeschichte der neueren Zeit, München, 1934
- Quardt, Robert. Der Meisterdiplomat. 1964 Kevelaer,Germany: Verlag Butzon & Bercker. Translated by Ilya Wolston. The Master Diplomat - From the Life of Leo XIII. New York: Alba House.
- The Catholic Encyclopedia (edition of 1913, see also under External links)
[edit] References
- ^ Duffy 241
- ^ Divino Afflante Spiritu 1-12
- ^ Duffy 241
- ^ Franzen 371
- ^ Franzen 371
- ^ Ludwig von Pastor, Errinnerungen, 1950
- ^ Franzen, 372
- ^ Duffy 242
- ^ Duffy 244
- ^ Annum sacrum 1899
- ^ Suprimi apostolatus Rudolf Graber, Die marianischen Weltrundschreiben der Päpste der letzten 100 Jahre, Würzburg; 1954 , p 30.
- ^ Encyclical Octobri Mense Graber 48
- ^ Graber 62
- ^ Graber, 83
- ^ Graber 115
- ^ Bäumer, 96
- ^ J M Höcht, Fatima und Pius XII, 1956
- ^ Köster 54
- ^ Bäumer, IV, 97
- ^ Bäumer, IV 97
- ^ Rosmini
- ^ Bäumer, IV 97
- ^ Humanum Genus 19
- ^ Humanum Genus 20, 21, 22
- ^ Rerum Novarum, 17
- ^ Humanum Genus 26
- ^ Humanum Genus 26. 27
- ^ Humanum Genus 29
- ^ in his book Die Arbeiterfrage und das Chistentum
- ^ "Aeterni Patris - On the Restoration of Christian Philosophy". Encyclical of 4 August 1879
- ^ Schmidlin 409
- ^ Schmidlin 413
- ^ Schmidlin 414
- ^ "Pope Leo XIII and his Household" in The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine, p. 596
- ^ All references unless otherwise indicated: Schmidlin, II, 506-514
[edit] External links
Works by Leo XIII on Wikisource- "Pope Leo XIII" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
- Pope Leo XIII texts and biography from the Vatican
- Pope Leo XIII, overview of pontificate
- Etexts of his encyclicals and other documents
- Pope Leo XIII: text with concordances and frequency list
| Roman Catholic Church titles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Filippo De Angelis |
Camerlengo 1877 – 1878 |
Succeeded by Camillo Cardinal di Pietro |
| Preceded by Pius IX |
Pope 1878 – 1903 |
Succeeded by Pius X |
|
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| NAME | Leo XIII, Pope |
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES | Pecci, Vincenzo Gioacchino Raffaelle Luigi |
| SHORT DESCRIPTION | Pope |
| DATE OF BIRTH | March 2, 1810 |
| PLACE OF BIRTH | Carpineto Romano, Italy |
| DATE OF DEATH | July 20, 1903 |
| PLACE OF DEATH | Apostolic Palace, Rome, Italy |
