Korea under Japanese rule

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일제 강점기 (日帝强占期) 日本統治下の朝鮮 (にほんとうちかのちょうせん) Japanese Forcible Occupation Period Korea under Japanese Rule Ruled by Japan ← 1910 – 1945 →   → Flag Anthem Kimigayo¹ Korea under Japanese rule - 일제 강점기 Capital Keijō Language(s) Korean, Japanese Religion Shintō¹ Government Government-General The Emperor of Japan ¹  - 1910–1912 Meiji  - 1912–1925 Taisho  - 1925–1945 Hirohito Governor-General  - 1910–1916 (first) Count Masatake Terauchi  - 1944–1945 (last) Nobuyuki Abe Legislature Assembly of Councilors² Historical era Interwar period  - Eulsa Treaty November 18, 1905  - Japan-Korea Annexation August 22, 1910  - March 1st Movement March 1, 1919  - Battle of Chingshanli September 11, 1920  - Shanghai bombing attack April 29, 1932  - Sōshi-kaimei 1940–1945  - End of World War II August 15, 1945  - Division of Korea 1945 Population  -  est. 25,300,000 (1,945)  Currency Korean yen ¹ refers to the Empire of Japan ² Chūsūin (Korean: Jungchuwon) was an advisory council.

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Period of Japanese Rule
Korean name
Hangul 일제 강점기 or 일제시대 Hanja 日帝强占期 or 日帝時代 Revised Romanization Ilje Gangjeomgi or Iljesidae McCune-Reischauer Ilche Kangjŏmgi or Ilchesidae
Japanese name
Kanji 日本統治下の朝鮮 Hiragana にほんとうちかのちょうせん Rōmaji Nihon Tōchi Jidai no Chōsen

Korea under Japanese rule refers to the period between 1910 and 1945 when Korea was forcibly annexed by the Japanese Empire. Japan's involvement began with the 1876 Treaty of Ganghwa during the Joseon Dynasty of Korea and increased with the subsequent assassination of Empress Myeongseong (also known as Queen Min) in 1895. It culminated with the 1905 Eulsa Treaty and the 1910 Annexation Treaty, both of which were eventually declared "null and void" by both Japan and South Korea in 1965.

In this period, the Imperial Japanese Army discriminated against, tortured, plundered, raped, summary executed and mass murdered innocent Koreans. The Japanese mercilessly shot random people on the streets at times, and would torture anyone who had any kind of information leading to the capture "Independence Army" (독립군) but were unsuccesfull. ^[1] Major cultural genocides and war crimes committed by the Japanese include forced sex slavery and kidnapping of Korean females for the Japanese army,^[2] human experiments on live Koreans,^[3] burning down of Korean villages,^[4] banning of the Korean language and religions,^[5] complete censorship of media, unfair confiscation of land, food and cultural assets, forced name changes and Imperial education, which led to a strong rise in anti-Japanese sentiment and Korean nationalism, still persistent to this date in both South Korea and North Korea.^[6]

Japanese control of Korea ended with the surrender of Japan to the Allied forces in 1945 at the end of World War II. The Korean Peninsula was subsequently divided into South Korea and North Korea. The legacy of the occupation remains in continuing disputes between Japan and the two Koreas.

In Korea, this period is called the Japanese Forcible Occupation Period (일제 강점기; Ilje gangjeomgi, 日帝强占期) or Japanese Imperial Period (일제시대, Ilje sidae, 日帝時代). Sometimes it is also referred to as the Wae jeong (Hangul: 왜정, Hanja: 倭政), or "Japanese administration". In Japan, this period is called Korea under Japanese rule (日本統治時代の朝鮮) (Nippon Toji-jidai no Chosen)

Contents 1 Background 1.1 Assassination of Empress Myeongseong 1.2 Donghak Revolution and protests for democracy 1.3 On the road to annexation 2 Annexation of Korea 2.1 Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty 2.2 Liberation movement 2.3 World War II 3 Economy and exploitation 3.1 Japanese migration and land confiscation 3.2 National Mobilization Law 4 Politics and culture 4.1 Assimilation of the royalty 4.2 ‘Cultural genocide’ 4.3 Forced name changes 4.4 Education in Korea under Japanese rule 5 Military conscription 5.1 Japanese war crimes, Atomic bomb casualties 6 Controversial statements regarding Japanese rule in Korea 7 1910 interpretations and arguments 8 Modern interpretations and arguments 9 Japan's coverup efforts 10 See also 11 Notes and references 12 External links

[edit] Background

In the late 19th century and early 20th century, various Western countries were competing for influence, trade, and territory in East Asia while Japan sought to join the modern colonial powers. The newly modernised Meiji government of Japan turned to Korea, then in the sphere of influence of Qing Dynasty of China. The Japanese government initially sought to separate Korea from Qing and make Korea a Japanese satellite in order to further their security and national interests.^[7]

In January 1876, following the Meiji Restoration, Japan employed gunboat diplomacy to pressure Korea to sign the Treaty of Ganghwa, which was regarded as unequal treaty, ^[8] and grant extraterritorial rights and open three Korean ports to Japanese trade. The rights granted to Japan under the treaty were similar to those granted western powers in Japan following the visit of Commodore Perry. ^[8]

[edit] Assassination of Empress Myeongseong

Main article: Empress Myeongseong

In 1895, Empress Myeongseong was assassinated by Japanese agents.^[9] The Japanese minister to Korea, Miura Goro orchestrated the plot against her. A group of Japanese agents entered the Imperial palace in Seoul, which was under Japanese guard,^[10] and Empress Myeongseong (referred to as "Queen Min" by the Japanese) was killed and her body desecrated in the north wing of the palace.^[11] The empress had attempted to counter Japanese interference in Korea and was considering turning to Russia or China for support.

Reacting to the murder of the Empress, on February 11, 1896, Emperor Gojong and his crown prince fled from the Gyeongbokgung palace to the Russian legation in Seoul, from which they governed for about one year, an event known as Korea royal refuge at the Russian legation. Russia and the U.S. were granted concessions to counterbalance Japanese influence.

[edit] Donghak Revolution and protests for democracy

Main article: Donghak Peasant Revolution

The outbreak of the Donghak Peasant Revolution in 1894 changed Japanese policy toward Korea. Korea had negotiated with Russia to counterbalance Japan's growing influence. So Chae-pil and Protestant missionaries introduced Western political thought to Korea. Protesters took to the streets, demanding democratic reforms and an end to Japanese and Russian influence in Korean affairs. The Korean government asked for Chinese assistance in ending the revolt. The Meiji leaders decided upon military intervention to challenge China. When China sent troops into Korea, Japan sent its own troops to Korea. Japan won the First Sino-Japanese War, and China signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895. Among its many stipulations, the treaty recognized "the full and complete independence and autonomy of Korea," thus ending Korea's protectorate relationship with the Chinese Qing dynasty.

[edit] On the road to annexation

The strategic rivalry between Russia and Japan exploded in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, won by Japan.^[12] Under the peace treaty signed in September 1905, Russia acknowledged Japan's "paramount political, military, and economic interest" in Korea.^[12]

A separate agreement was signed in secret between the United States and Japan at this time, and this subsequently aroused anti-American sentiment among Koreans decades later.^[12] The Taft-Katsura Agreement was cynical by modern standards, exchanging what amounted to a lack of interest and military capability in Korea on the part of the United States (Japan was given a free hand in Korea) for a lack of interest or capability in the Philippines on the part of Japan (Japanese imperialism was diverted from the Philippines).^[12] Given the diplomatic conventions of the times, however, the agreement was a much weaker endorsement of the Japanese presence in Korea than either the Russo-Japanese peace treaty or a separate Anglo-Japanese accord.^[12]

Two months later, Korea was obliged to become a Japanese protectorate.^[12] Thereafter, a large number of Koreans organized themselves in education and reform movements, but by then Japanese dominance in Korea was a reality.^[12]

In June 1907, the Second Peace Conference was held in The Hague. Emperor Gojong secretly sent three representatives, commissioned to bring the problems of Korea to the world's attention. The three envoys were refused access to the public debates by the international delegates who alleged the legality of the protectorate convention. Out of despair, one of the Korean representatives, Yi Chun, committed suicide at The Hague.^[13]

In response, the Japanese government took stronger measures. On July 19, Emperor Gojong was forced to relinquish his imperial authority and appoint the Crown Prince as the regent. The Japanese officials used this concession to force the accession of the new Emperor Sunjong following abdication, which was never agreed to by Gojong. Neither Gojong or Sunjong was present at the 'accession' ceremony. Sunjong was to be the last ruler of the Joseon Dynasty, which had been founded in 1392.^[14]

[edit] Annexation of Korea

[edit] Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty

Main article: Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty

In May 1910, the Minister of the Army of Japan, Terauchi Masatake, was given a mission to finalize Japanese control over Korea after previous treaties (Japan-Korea Protocol of 1904 and Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty of 1907) had made Korea a protectorate of Japan and had established Japanese hegemony over Korean domestic politics. On August 22, 1910, Korea was effectively annexed by Japan with the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty signed by Lee Wan-Yong, Prime Minister of Korea, and Terauchi Masatake, who became the first Japanese Governor-General of Korea.

The text was published one week later and became effective the same day. The treaty stipulated:

• "Article 1: His Majesty the Emperor of Korea concedes completely and definitely his entire sovereignty over the whole Korean territory to His Majesty the Emperor of Japan.
• Article 2: His Majesty the Emperor of Japan accepts the concession stated in the previous article and consents to the annexation of Korea to the Empire of Japan."

Both the protectorate and the annexation treaties were declared void in the 1965 Basic Treaty between Korea and Japan since both were: 1) obtained under threat of force, and 2) the Korean Emperor, whose royal assent was required to validate and finalize any legislation or diplomatic agreement under Korean law of the period, refused to sign the document.^[15][16].

[edit] Liberation movement

Main article: Korean independence movement

Upon Emperor Gojong's death, anti-Japanese rallies took place nationwide, most notably the March 1st Movement of 1919. A declaration of independence was read in Seoul. It is estimated that 2 million people took part in these rallies. The protests were violently suppressed: according to Korean records, 46,948 were arrested, 7,509 killed and 15,961 wounded; according to Japanese figures, 8437 were arrested, 553 killed and 1409 wounded.^[17] According to Encyclopedia Britannica, about 7,000 people were killed by the Japanese police and soldiers during the 12 months of demonstrations.^[18]

After the suppression of the uprising, some of the aspects of Japanese rule considered most objectionable to Koreans were removed. The military police were replaced by a civilian force, and limited press freedom was permitted. Two of the three major Korean daily newspapers, the Dong-a Ilbo and the Chosun Ilbo, were established in 1920.

However, objection to Japanese rule over Korea continued, and the March 1st Movement was a catalyst for the establishment of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea by Korean émigrés in Shanghai on April 13, 1919. This Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea is considered by the modern South Korea government to be the de jure representation of the Korean people throughout the period of Japanese rule.

In military terms, although the Japanese occupation of Korea after annexation was largely uncontested by the numerically smaller, poor armed and poorly trained Korean army, many former soldiers and other volunteers left the Korean peninsula for Manchuria and Primorsky Krai in Russia. Koreans in Manchuria formed resistance groups known as Dongnipgun (Liberation Army) which would travel in and out of the Korean-Chinese boundary, fighting with guerrilla warfare tactics against Japanese forces. The Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1932 and subsequent Pacification of Manchukuo deprived many of these groups of their bases of operation and supplies. Many were forced to either flee to China itself, or to join with the Communist-backed forces in eastern Russia.

Within Korea itself, anti-Japanese rallies continued on occasion, most notably the nationwide student uprising of November 1929, which led to the strengthening of military rule in 1931, after which freedom of the press and expression were curbed. Many witnesses, including Catholic priests, reported that Japanese authorities dealt with insurgency severely. When villagers were suspected of hiding rebels, entire villages of people are said to have been herded into public buildings (especially churches) and massacred when the buildings were set on fire.^[19] In the village of Cheam-Ni near Suwon, for instance, a group of 29 people was gathered inside a church which was then set afire to burn them alive.^[20] Such events deepened the hostility of many Korean civilians towards the Japanese government.^[21]

[edit] World War II

On December 9, 1941, shortly after the Attack on Pearl Harbor, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, under the presidency of Kim Gu, declared war on Japan and Nazi Germany. The Provisional Government banded together various Korean resistance guerilla groups as the Korean Liberation Army, which participated in combat on behalf of the Allies in various campaigns in China and parts of South East Asia. Tens of thousands more Koreans volunteered for the National Revolutionary Army and the Peoples Liberation Army.

Outside of the control of the Provisional Government was the communist-backed Korean Volunteer Army (KVA), established in Yenan, China from a core of 1000 deserters from the Imperial Japanese Army. After Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation, the KVA entered Manchuria, where it recruited from the ethnic Korean population and eventually became the Korean People's Army of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea.

Following the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan surrendered to the Allied forces on 15 August 1945, ending 35 years of Japanese occupation. American forces under General John R. Hodge arrived in the southern part of Korea on 8 September. Colonel Dean Rusk proposed splitting Korea at the 38th parallel at an emergency meeting to determine postwar spheres of influence during this time.

However, as the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea lacked widespread international diplomatic recognition, its representatives were not allowed to participate in the San Francisco Peace Conference, nor was the Provisional Government a signatory to the Treaty of San Francisco.^[22]

[edit] Economy and exploitation

Korea during the late Joeson period was a largely an isolationist pre-industrial society, with most foreign trade prohibited and attempts at economic modernization stifled by an extremely conservative Court and landed aristocracy.

During the early period of Japanese rule, the Japanese government concentrated on building a significant transportation infrastructure on the Korean peninsula, including development of port facilities, an extensive railway system, including a main truck railway from the southern port city of Pusan through the capital of Keijo and north to the Chinese border. This transportation infrastructure was intended not only to facilitate a colonial mercantilist, colonial economy^[23] for the extraction of raw materials (timber), foodstuffs (mostly rice and fish), and mineral resources (coal and iron ore), but was also viewed as a strategic necessity for the Japanese military to control Korea and to move large numbers of troops and materials to the China border at short notice.

From the late 1920s and into the 1930s, particularly during the tenure of Japanese Governor-General Kazushige Ugaki, concentrated efforts were to build up the industrial base in the Korean peninsula, especially in the areas of heavy industry, such as chemical plants and steel mills, and munitions production. The Japanese military felt that having production closer to the source of raw materials and closer to the potential front lines in a future war with China, would be of benefit.^[24]

However, by the early 1930s, Japanese investment was limited due to the worldwide economic depression, competition for investment opportunities from the potentially more lucrative Manchukuo and by Japans own limited economic capacity.

As Imperial Japan began feeling the strains of World War II, Japan "siphoned off more and more of Korea's resources, including its people, to feed its war machine."^[25]

[edit] Japanese migration and land confiscation

Prior to the annexation of Korea, from around the time of the First Sino-Japanese War, Japanese merchants began settling in towns and cities around Korea seeking economic opportunities. After annexation, the Japanese government wanted more ethnic Japanese settlers to take root in Korea and encouraged further migration to help consolidate and expand Japanese influence. By 1910, the number of Japanese settlers in Korea reached over 170,000, creating the largest overseas Japanese community in the world at the time.

Many Japanese settlers were interested in acquiring agricultural land in Korea even before Japanese landownership was officially legalized in 1906. This was facilitated by a land reform introduced by Japanese Governor-General Terauchi Masatake which subsequently proved extremely unpopular with large segments of the Korean population. The Korean land ownership system was a complex system of absentee landlords, partial owner-tenants, and cultivators with traditional but without legal proof of ownership. Terauchi's new Land Survey Bureau conducted cadastral surveys that reestablished ownership by basis of written proof (deeds, titles, and similar documents). Ownership was denied to those who could not provide such written documentation (mostly lower class and partial owners, who had only traditional verbal "cultivator rights"). Although the plan succeeded in reforming land ownership/taxation structures, it added tremendously to the bitter and hostile environment of the time by enabling a huge amount of Korean land to be seized by the government and sold at subsidized costs to any Japanese family willing to settle in Korea as part of a larger effort at colonization.^[26].

Japanese landlords included both individuals and corporations, such as the Oriental Development Company. Former Korean landowners as well as agricultural workers, became tenant farmers, having lost their entitlements almost overnight.

It is estimated that by 1910 perhaps 7 to 8 percent of all arable land was under Japanese control. This ratio increased steadily. During the years 1916, 1920, and 1932, during which the ratio of Japanese land ownership started at 36.8%, then rose to 39.8%, and finally jumped to 52.7%, while the ratio of Korean ownership began at 63.2%, decreased to 60.2%, and finally fell to 47.3%. This level of tenancy was very similar to that of farmers in Japan itself, but with the difference being that in Korea, the landowners were mostly Japanese, and the tenants were all Koreans. As was often the case in Japan itself, tenants were forced to pay over half their crop as rent, they were often forced to send wives and daughters to factories or to sell daughters into prostitution to pay for taxes. ^[26]

Korea lagged behind Japan proper in the rise of agricultural cooperatives and advances in cash crop and mechanized agriculture, and thus suffered from occasional famine through crop failure and over taxation.

By the 1930s, the growth of the urban economy and flight of farmers to the cities gradually weakened the hold of the landlords. With the growth of the wartime economy, the government recognized that landlordism was an impediment to increased agricultural productivity, and took steps to increase control over the rural sector through the formation of the Central Agricultural Association, which was a compulsory organization under the wartime command economy.

[edit] National Mobilization Law

From 1939, labor shortages as a result of over-drafting of Japanese males for the military World War II led to organized official recruitment of Koreans to work in mainland Japan, initially through civilian agents, and later directly, often involving elements of coercion. As the labor shortage increased, by 1942, the Japanese authorities extended the provisions of the National Mobilization Law to include the involuntary conscription of Korean workers for factories and mines on the Korean peninsula, Manchukuo and the involuntary relocation of workers to Japan itself as needed.

Of the 5,400,000 Koreans conscripted, about 670,000 were taken to mainland Japan (including Karafuto Prefecture (present-day Sakhalin, now part of Russia) for civilian labor. Those who were brought to Japan were often forced to work under appalling conditions. About 60,000 are estimated to have died between 1939 and 1945 from harsh treatment, inhumane working conditions and Allied bombings.^[27] The total deaths of Korean forced laborers in Korea and Manchuria is estimated to be between 270,000 and 810,000.^[28] The 43,000 in Karafuto, which had been occupied by the Soviet Union just prior to Japan's surrender, were refused repatriation to either mainland Japan or the Korean peninsula, and were thus trapped in Sakhalin, stateless; they became the ancestors of the Sakhalin Koreans.^[29]

In 1938, an estimated 800,000 ethnic Koreans were living in Japan as immigrants. The combination of immigrants and forced labor workers during World War II brought that total to over 2 million by the end of the war, according to estimates by the American occupation authorities. In 1946, some 1,340,000 ethnic Koreans were repatriated to Korea, with 650,000 choosing to remain in Japan .^[30], where they now form the Zainichi Korean community. A 1982 survey by the Korean Youth Association showed that conscripted labor accounts for 13.3% of first-generation Zainichi Koreans.

[edit] Politics and culture

Residents of the Korean peninsula, whether ethnic Korean or Japanese, did not have the right to vote or right to hold office in Japan's House of Representatives. The election law was amended in 1945 to allot 18 seats of the House of Representatives to the Korean peninsula, but this did not go into effect because of the end of the war later in the same year. Koreans in Japan were, however, eventually given the right to vote and to hold office. Pak Chun-geum(ja)(박춘금, 朴春琴) was the first ethnic Korean to be elected into the House of Representatives in 1932, re-elected in 1938, and continued to serve throughout the Second World War. Several members of the Korean Royalty and aristocracy were appointed to the House of Peers including Pak Yeong-Hyo(ja)(박영효, 朴泳孝) in 1932. 38 Koreans were elected into local assemblies in 1942.

[edit] Assimilation of the royalty

Following the forced dissolution of the Korean Empire and the assassination of Empress Myeongseong at the hands of Japanese agents, the Korean royalty was incorporated into the Japanese royalty. Since the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty lacked legality as it was never signed by the Korean Emperor,^[15] an effort was made to inter-marry the royalty of the two houses in an attempt to validate the occupation of Korea. Yi Eun, then the Imperial Crown Prince of Korea, married Masako of Nashimotonomiya. Pro-Japanese Koreans (or Chinilpa) who supported or helped the annexation were also given titles of Japanese nobility. Lee Wan-Yong, the last prime minister of the Korean Empire, was given the title of Count (later Duke) by Japanese fiat and against Korean resistance. In total, 76 Koreans were titled Count, Baron, etc. all of which were later invalidated by the Korean Governments after receiving formal charges of betrayal against the state.

[edit] ‘Cultural genocide’

The Japanese colonization of Korea has been mentioned as the case in point of "cultural genocide" by a graduate student Ms. Matsumura at the Comparative Genocide Studies group at the University of Tokyo.^[31] The colonial government put into practice the suppression of Korean culture and language in an "attempt to root out all elements of Korean culture from society".^[25]

"Focus was heavily and intentionally placed upon the psychological and cultural element in Japan 's colonial policy, and the unification strategies adopted in the fields of culture and education were designed to eradicate the individual ethnicity of the Korean race."^[31]

Initially, the Japanese sponsored several Korean language newspapers to counter the strong anti-Japanese message of the chief Korean publication Hwangson Sinmun (1898-1910),^[32] and in fact kept issuing the Korean language newspaper Maeil Sinbo (매일신보; 每日新報) until the Japanese surrender in 1945.^[33][32]

Other means of cultural suppression included the method of “altering” public monuments, including several well-known temples, palaces, scripts, memorials, and statues. Songs and poems originally dedicated to Korean Emperors were re-written to adore the Japanese Emperor. Carved monuments underwent alterations to the Chinese characters to delete or change part of their meaning. The Korean History Compilation Committee confiscated and burned Korean history books^{[citation needed]}.

Two of the more notorious events included the Sungnyemun, a virtual symbol of Korea, which was altered by the addition of large, Shinto-style golden horns near the roofs (later removed by the South Korean government after independence), and the incident of Gyeongbokgung, a former Korean palace which was demolished and the Japanese General Government Building built in the exact location. In addition, many ancient Korean texts that were discovered mentioning Korean military and cultural exploits or Japan's historic inferiority and uncivilized behavior such as Wokou were deleted methodically; in general, the awareness of Korean history among Koreans declined during this period. Japan altered the history to rationalize the occupation of Korea to the international community and the Korean History Compilation Committee appeared to be an extension of that action.^[34][35][36]

This eventually led to a revival in Korean nationalism, including in-depth research projects into Hangul, the Korean alphabet, which resulted in the standardization of the Korean writing system by scholars such as Lee Hui-Seung (이희승) and Choe Hyeon-bae (최현배) in the 1930s, as well as underground publications of books about historical Korean figures. Historians, such as Shin Chae-ho, were active in trying to present a Koreanized version of ancient history using textual material.

[edit] Forced name changes

Main article: Sōshi-kaimei

In 1911 a proclamation, “Case Concerning the Changing of Korean Names” (朝鮮人ノ姓名改称ニ関スル件) was issued barring ethnic Koreans from taking Japanese names and to retroactively revert the names of Koreans that had already registered under Japanese names back to the original Korean ones^[37] in an attempt to better segregate individuals of Korean and Japanese ancestry.^[37] By 1939, however, the focus had shifted towards colonial assimilation, and Imperial Decree 19 on Korean Civil Affairs (조선민사령; “帝令19朝鮮民事令”)^[38] went into effect, whereby all Koreans had to surrender their Korean family name and adopt Japanese surnames. A country study conducted by the Library of Congress states that “Korean culture was quashed, and Koreans were required to speak Japanese and take Japanese names.”^[39][40][41] This forced name change, called Changssi-gaemyeong (창씨개명; 創氏改名), was part of Japan's assimilation policy.^[42][43][44] In all, some 9.6% of Koreans changed their last name to a Japanese one during the colonial occupation.

[edit] Education in Korea under Japanese rule

In Joeson dynasty Korea, education was limited to private academies for the aristocracy.^{[citation needed]} Following the annexation of Korea, the Japanese administration introduced universal education^{[citation needed]} patterned after the Japanese school system, with a pyramidal hierarchy of elementary, middle and high schools, cumulating at the Keijō Imperial University in Seoul. As in Japan itself, education was viewed primarily as an instrument of “Imperial Citizen Forming” (황민화; 皇民化) with a heavy emphasis on moral and political indoctrination. Although the Japanese colonial government did provide educational material for Korean culture and Korean language to some degree, such as a textbook of Hangul^[45] and grammar to mix Hangul with Chinese characters (in the version designed by Kakugorō Inoue),^[46] classes focused mostly on teaching the history of the Japanese Empire as well as glorification of the Imperial House of Japan. The history of Korea was not part of the curriculum. As in Japan itself, students were made to worship at the school's Shintō shrine regardless of their religious beliefs, and bow before portraits of the Emperor and copy of the Imperial Rescript on Education. As the Japanese administrative policy shifted more strongly towards assimilation from the 1930s (同化政策; dōka seisaku), all classes were taught in Japanese with Korean language becoming an elective. Later this policy was replaced by a “Penalty Point” system whereby students were academically penalized for the use of the Korean language during school time. Eventually the use of Korean language was “forbidden in all schools and business”.^[25] During colonial times, elementary schools were known as “Citizen Schools” (국민학교; 國民學校; gungmin hakgyo) as in Japan, as a means of forming proper “Imperial Citizens” (皇國民; Hwanggungmin) since early childhood. Elementary schools in South Korea today are known by the name chodeung hakgyo (초등학교; 初等學校) (literally “Elementary School”) as the term “gungmin hakgyo” has become a politically incorrect term.

[edit] Military conscription

Starting in 1938, Koreans both enlisted and were conscripted into the Japanese military and the first "Korean Voluntary" Unit was formed. Among notable Korean personnel in the Imperial Army was Crown Prince Euimin, who attained the rank of lieutenant general. Of those who survived, some later gained administrative posts in the government of South Korea; well-known examples include Park Chung Hee, who years later became president of South Korea, Chung Il-kwon (정일권,丁一權), prime minister during 1964–1970, and Paik Sun-yup, South Korea's youngest general, famous for his defense of the Pusan Perimeter during the Korean War. The first 10 of the Chiefs of Army Staff of South Korea graduated the Imperial Japanese Army Academy and no one from the Korean Liberation Army.^[47][48]

Recruitment began as early as 1938, when the Japanese Kwantung Army in Manchuria began accepting pro-Japanese Korean volunteers into the Manchukuoan Army to form the Gando Special Force. Koreans in this unit specialized in counter-insurgency operations against communist guerillas in the region of Jiandao. The size of the unit grew considerably at an annual rate of 700 men, and included such notable Koreans as General Paik Sun-yup. Historian Philip Jowett noted that during the Japanese occupation of Manchuria, the Gando Special Force had "earned a reputation for brutality and was reported to have laid waste to large areas which came under its rule."^[49] Jowett further added that the Chinese in the area hated the Korean soldiers so much that anybody from this unit captured by both the Nationalists or Chinese Communists during the war were immediately executed.

During the Second World War, American soldiers frequently encountered Korean soldiers within the ranks of the Japanese army. Most notable is the Battle of Tarawa, which was considered during that time the be one of the bloodiest battles in US military history. A fifth of the Japanese garrison during this battle consisted of Korean laborers who were trained in combat roles. Like their Japanese counterparts, they put up a ferocious defense and fought to the death. ^{[50] [51]}

Starting in 1944, Japan started conscription of Koreans into the armed forces. All Korean males were drafted to either join the Imperial Japanese Army, as of April 1944, or work in the military industrial sector, as of September 1944. Before 1944, 18,000 Koreans passed the examination for induction into the army. Koreans to provide workforces to mines and construction sites around the island nation. The discovery proved that the number of conscripted Koreans reached its peak in the year in preparation for the war in the Japanese mainland.[3] The application ratio was allegedly 48.3 to 1 in 1943. From 1944, about 200,000 Korean males were inducted into the army. The number of Korean military personnel was 242,341, and 22,182 of them died during World War II.

After the war, 148 Koreans were convicted of Class B and C war crimes, 23 of whom were sentenced to death. Koreans prison guards were particularly notorious for their brutality during the war. Justice Bert Röling, who represented the Netherlands at the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal, noted that "many of the commanders and guards in POW camps were Koreans - the Japanese apparently did not trust them as soldiers - and it is said that they were sometimes far more cruel than the Japanese."^[52] In his memoirs, Colonel Eugene C. Jacobs also wrote that during the Bataan Death March, "the Korean guards were the most abusive. The Japs didn't trust them in battle, so used them as service troops; the Koreans were anxious to get blood on their bayonets; and then they thought they were veterans."^[53] Korean guards were even sent to the remote jungles of Burma, where Lt. Col. William A. (Bill) Henderson wrote from his own experience that some of the guards overlooking the construction of the Burma Railway "were moronic and at times almost bestial in their treatment of prisoners. This applied particularly to Korean private soldiers, conscripted only for guard and sentry duties in many parts of the Japanese empire. Regrettably, they were appointed as guards for the prisoners throughout the camps of Burma and Siam."^[54] The highest ranking Korean to be prosecuted after the war is Lieutenant General Hong Sa-ik, who was in command of all the Japanese prisoner-of-war camps in the Philippines.

In 2002, South Korea started an investigation of Japanese collaborators. Part of the investigation was completed in 2006 and a list of names of individuals who profited from exploitation of fellow Koreans were posted.

Korean military participation until 1943

Year	Applicants	# accepted
1938	2,946	406
1939	12,348	613
1940	84,443	3,060
1941	144,743	3,208
1942	254,273	4,077
1943	303,294	6,300

^[55]

[edit] Japanese war crimes, Atomic bomb casualties

During World War II, women who served in the Japanese military brothels were called Comfort women. Historians estimate the number of comfort women between 10,000 and 200,000, which include Japanese women.^[56][57] According to testimonies, there were cases that Japanese officials and local collaborators kidnapped or recruited under guise of factory employment poor, rural women from Korea (and other nations) for sexual slavery for Japanese military.

As investigations continue, more evidence continues to surface. There has been evidence of the Japanese government intentionally destroying official records regarding Comfort Women.^[58][59] Nonetheless, Japanese inventory logs and employee sheets on the battlefield show traces of documentation for government sponsored sexual slavery. In one instance, names of known Comfort Women were traced to Japanese employment records. One such woman was falsely classified as a nurse along with at least a dozen other verified comfort women who were not nurses or secretaries. Currently, the South Korean government is looking into the hundreds of other names on these lists.^[60]

In the case of Korean A-bomb victims in Japan during World War II, many Koreans were drafted for work at military industrial factories in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. There were a total of 70,000 Korean casualties in both cities; 40,000 were killed and 30,000 were exposed to the A-bomb radiation.

During Japanese Occupation of Korea, most Koreans became victims of Japanese war crimes, such as Christians being crucified, Korean villages found hiding resistance fighters were dealt with harshly, often with summary execution, rape, murder, and at times burying elderly people alive; other crimes included human experimentation, mass murder, forced labour, preventable famine and looting.

"To this day, valuable Korean artifacts can often be found in Japanese museums or among private collectors. According to the investigation of the South Korea government, There are 75,311 cultural assets that were taken from Korea. Japan has 34,369; the United States has 17,803. Today, Korea frequently demands the return of these artifacts to which Japan does not comply."

Koreans along with many other Asians were experimented on in secret military medical experimentation units, such as Unit 731, Unit 516, and many more. An estimated 270,000 - 810,000 Koreans died in seven years in Manchuria from forced labor alone.^[61]

[edit] Controversial statements regarding Japanese rule in Korea

The nature, legitimacy, and legacy of the Japanese annexation of Korea, especially its disputed role in contributing to the modernization of the Korean peninsula, is a topic of intense debate. In both Koreas, Japanese rule in the early twentieth century is taught as a ruthless attempt to exploit the Korean people. In both South and North Korea, Japanese historical revisionism is viewed along the same lines as Holocaust denial in modern Europe.^{[citation needed]}.

Nonetheless, controversial pro-Japanese statements of the occupation of Korea have been made by Korean academics:

• Professor Rhee Young Hoon (이영훈) of Seoul National University (서울대) argued at a seminar hosted by the Asia-Pacific Research Center at Stanford that despite human rights problems, the Korean economy had grown greatly under the Japanese rule and that the base of modern capitalism introduced by the Japanese to Korea later became a part of the foundation of the modern Korean economy.^[62]
• Professor Emeritus Ahn Byung Jik (안병직) of Seoul National University rejects the prevailing view that the late Joseon Dynasty had a germination of capitalism and could have grown into a modern society on its own, and argues that the Japanese rule helped the economic development of Korea.^[63]
• Professor Emeritus Han Seung-Jo of Korea University wrote that "The colonial rule of Korea by Japan was actually a stroke of good fortune, and instead of hating them for it, they should be thanked. There is no reason to rebuke, denounce or make criminals of the pro-Japanese activities of 35 years of cooperation without opposition", and said in a later interview that "At the time, if Japan hadn't taken over Chosun, Russia would have, and if that had happened the Korean people would have been scattered under Joseph Stalin's racial dispersion policy", and that "I see the colonial rule by Japan as having been not a bad thing, but instead an opportunity for the strengthening of the Korean people's awareness."^[64]

• Ji Man-Won, a retired South Korean military officer and author caused controversy in Korea and further abroad with his view. Ji has praised Japan for "modernizing" Korea, and has said "only around 20 percent of the Korean women who sexually served the Japanese military personnel were forced, while the remaining 80 percent volunteered in order to make money".^[65]

[edit] 1910 interpretations and arguments

Early views of Japanese colonialism before the start of World War II were mixed. T. Philip Terry predicted the following in his 1914 guidebook Terry's Japanese Empire, Including Korea and Formosa:

"That intelligent Koreans will later be as grateful to Japan as the Japanese now are to the United States, there is but little doubt. With customary astuteness and good will, Japan has adopted the admirable British idea in colonization of giving every man, British or alien, friend or foe, the same chance...Japan is to-day repaying Korea for centuries of unjust invasion, by the introduction of civilization and enlightenment."^[66]

However, not all outside accounts before the start of the war were as favorable towards the Japanese occupation. F.A. McKenzie in his book Korea's Fight for Freedom wrote the following in 1920:

"When Japan, in face of her repeated pledges, annexed Korea, her statesmen adopted an avowed policy of assimilation. They attempted to turn the people of Korea into Japanese--an inferior brand of Japanese, a serf race, speaking the language and following the customs of their overlords, and serving them....'The Koreans are a degenerate people, not fit for self-government', says the man whose mind has been poisoned by subtle Japanese propaganda. Korea has only been a very few years in contact with Western civilization, but it has already indicated that this charge is a lie. Its old Government was corrupt, and deserved to fall. But its people, wherever they have had a chance, have demonstrated their capacity. In Manchuria hundreds of thousands of them, mostly fled from Japanese oppression, are industrious and prosperous farmers. In the Hawaiian Islands, there are five thousand Koreans, mainly labourers, and their families, working on the sugar plantations."^[67]

[edit] Modern interpretations and arguments

Main article: Economy of South Korea

Korea experienced a true modernization in post-World War II under the stewardship of the United States and the income from a highly export-oriented industrialization for several reasons:^[23]

1. The Korean War (1950-1953), which followed the Japanese occupation, destroyed most of the peninsula (in total about 2,500,000 people were killed, more than 80% of the national infrastructure including industrial and public facilities and transportation works, as well as three-quarters of the government offices, and one-half of residential areas were destroyed. The Korean peninsula after the Korean War had an overall economy "comparable with levels in the poorer countries of Africa" (see CIA World Factbook).
2. South Korea's economy grew mostly during the 1960s and 70's under the dictatorship era of General Park and the economic reforms under the Third and Fourth Republics. "From 1960/62 to 1973/75 the share of agriculture in GDP fell from 45 percent to 25 percent, while the share of manufacturing rose from 9 percent to 27 percent"^[68] The total GDP also grew in excess of 500% for this relatively short period. It was during this time of rapid economic growth that foreign observers first applied the term Economic Miracle of the Han River and that Korea earned itself the distinctive title of Economic Tiger.^[69]
3. Most Korean companies, especially the large Chaebol at the heart of the South Korean economic oligarchy, were founded well after the end of the Japanese occupation. These include, but are not limited to: Samsung Electronics, Hyundai Group, LG Group, and SK Telecom (known as the "Big Four" in South Korea).^[70]

[edit] Japan's coverup efforts

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Many argue that sensitive information about Japan's occupation of Korea is difficult to obtain, and that this is due to the fact that the Government of Japan has gone out of its way to cover up many incidents that would otherwise lead to severe international criticism.^[71][58][59] On their part, Koreans have often expressed their abhorrence of human experimentation carried out by the Imperial Japanese Army where people often became human test subjects in such macabre experiments as liquid nitrogen tests or biological weapons development programs (See articles: Unit 731 and Shiro Ishii). Though some vivid and disturbing testimonies have survived, they are largely denied by the Japanese Government even to this day.^[72]

A recent example of this behavior included the denial by the Japanese Government of the burial of non-Japanese test-subject bodies several dozen feet below buildings in Japanese urban areas (such as the bodies found under the Toyama No. 5 apartment blocks) in order to cover up these experiments. Flatly denied, even after the bodies are discovered as new developments are constantly being erected in Japan. The unmarked mass graves on the "west side of Tokyo is deeply troubling". The testimony of Toyo Ishii, a nurse involved in the coverup, are down played or ignored.^[71][73][74] "After more than 60 years of silence the 84-year-old nurse's story is the latest twist in the legacy of Japan's rampage." In addition, as cited above, much of the statistics are skewed due to the fact that they included Japanese migrants in Korea, making the poverty analysis of true Koreans indiscernible. Also, as referenced above the inventory logs and employee sheets were falsified by the Japanese in order to cover up the comfort women issue.^[59] These coverups and falsification of data have made accurate assessment of Japan's impact on Korea very difficult.

[edit] See also

• Korean independence movement
• Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea
• Japanese-Korean disputes
• Chosen Army of Japan
• Chinilpa

[edit] Notes and references

[edit] External links

• Isabella Lucy Bird (1898), Korea and Her Neighbours: A Narrative of Travel, with an Account of the Recent Vicissitudes and Present Position of the Country
• Horace Newton Allen (1908), Things Korean: A Collection of Sketches and Anecdotes, Missionary and Diplomatic
• Country Studies on Korea
• Hildi Kang (2001), Under the Black Umbrella: Voices from Colonial Korea, 1910-1945, Cornell University Press, ISBN 0-8014-7270-9
• Elizabeth Keith, published many woodcut art of Korea in 1920's.[4][5][6]

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