Coal mining

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Coal mining is the extraction or removal of coal from the earth by mining. When coal is used for fuel in power generation it is referred to as steaming or thermal coal. Coal that is used to create coke for steel manufacturing is referred to as coking or metallurgical coal.^[1] In the United States, UK, and South Africa, a coal mine and its accompanying structures are collectively known as a colliery. In Australia, 'colliery' usually only refers to an underground coal mine.^[2]

Contents 1 History 2 Methods of extraction 2.1 Modern surface mining 2.2 Underground mining 3 Production 4 Modern mining 5 Dangers to miners 6 Safer times in modern mining 7 Coal impoundment 8 Environmental impacts 9 Coal mining by country 9.1 Australia 9.2 China 9.3 Colombia 9.4 United States 10 Other coal business 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links

[edit] History

Main article: History of coal mining

The oldest continuously worked deep-mine in the UK and possibly the world is Tower Colliery at the northern end of the South Wales valleys in the heart of the South Wales coalfield. This colliery was started in 1805 and at the end of the 20th century it was bought out by its miners rather than being allowed to be closed. Tower Colliery was finally closed on the 25th January 2008.

The World Championships in coal-carrying take place every Easter Monday, at Ossett, West Yorkshire, UK. The race starts from the site of the old Savile & Shaw Cross colliery.

The first commercial coal mines in the United States were started in 1748 in Midlothian, Virginia, near Richmond, Virginia.^[3]

In the 1880s, Coal-cutting machines became available (prior to that, coal was mined underground by hand using a pick and shovel.)

By 1912, surface mining was underway with steam shovels specifically designed for coal mining.

[edit] Methods of extraction

The most economical method of coal extraction from coal seams depends on the depth and quality of the seams, and also the geology and environmental factors of the area being mined. Coal mining processes are generally differentiated by whether they operate on the surface or underground. Many coals extracted from both surface and underground mines require washing in a coal preparation plant.

[edit] Modern surface mining

When coal seams are near the surface, it may be economical to extract the coal using open cut (also referred to as open cast or open pit) mining methods. Typically, for coal, strip mining is used. Strip mining exposes the coal by the advancement of an open pit or strip. The earth above the coal seam(s) is known as overburden. A strip of overburden next to the previously mined strip is usually drilled. The drill holes are filled with explosives and blasted. The overburden is then removed using large earthmoving equipment such as draglines, shovel and trucks, excavator and trucks, or bucket-wheels and conveyors. This overburden is put into the previously mined (and now empty) strip. When all the overburden is removed, the underlying coal seam will be exposed as a strip known as a 'block'. This 'block' of coal may be drilled and blasted (if hard) or otherwise loaded on to trucks or conveyors for transport to the coal preparation (or wash) plant. Once this strip is empty of coal, the process is repeated with a new strip being created next to it.

Open cast coal mining recovers a greater proportion of the coal deposit than underground methods, as more of the coal seams in the strata may be exploited. Opencast coal mines can cover many square kilometers.^[4]

Most open cast mines in the United States extract bituminous coal. In South Wales open casting for steam coal and anthracite is practiced. In Australia and South Africa open cast mining is used for both thermal and metallurgical coals. Surface mining accounts for around 80% of production in Australia, while in the USA it is used for about 67% of production. Globally, about 40% of coal production involves surface mining.^[5]

Mountaintop removal is a form of surface mining that takes place at the topmost portion of a mountain, and is a technique that is commonly applied in Appalachia in the United States. Utilized for the past 30 years, mountaintop mining involves removing the highest part of the mountain for the maximum recovery of coal. The process is highly controversial for the drastic changes in topography, the practice of hollow fills, or filling in valleys with mining debris, and for covering streams and disrupting ecosystems.^[6]

[edit] Underground mining

Main article: Underground mining

Most coal seams are too deep underground for opencast mining and require underground mining, which method currently accounts for about 60% of world coal production.^[7] In deep mining, the room and pillar or bord and pillar method progresses along the seam, while pillars and timber are left standing to support the mine roof. Once room and pillar mines have been developed to a stopping point (limited by geology, ventilation, or economics), a supplementary version of room and pillar mining, termed second mining or retreat mining, is commonly started. This is when miners remove the coal in the pillars, thereby recovering as much coal from the coal seam as possible. A work area that is involved in pillar extraction is called a pillar section. Modern pillar sections use remote-controlled equipment, including large hydraulic mobile roof-supports, which can prevent cave-ins until the miners and their equipment have left a work area. The mobile roof supports are similar to a large dining-room table, but with hydraulic jacks for legs. After the large pillars of coal have been mined away, the mobile roof support's legs shorten and it is withdrawn to a safe area. The mine roof typically collapses once the mobile roof supports leave an area.

There are five principal underground mining methods:

• Longwall mining accounts for about 50% of underground production. The longwall shearer has a face of 1,000 feet (300 m) or more. It is a sophisticated machine with a rotating drum that moves mechanically back and forth across a wide coal seam. The loosened coal falls on to a pan line that takes the coal to the conveyor belt for removal from the work area. Longwall systems have their own hydraulic roof supports which advance with the machine as mining progresses. As the longwall mining equipment moves forward, overlying rock that is no longer supported by coal is allowed to fall behind the operation in a controlled manner. The supports make possible high levels of production and safety. Sensors detect how much coal remains in the seam while robotic controls enhance efficiency. Longwall systems allow a 60-to-100% coal recovery rate when surrounding geology allows their use.

• Continuous mining utilizes a machine with a large rotating steel drum equipped with tungsten carbide teeth that scrape coal from the seam. Operating in a “room and pillar” (also known as “bord and pillar”) system—where the mine is divided into a series of 20-to-30 foot “rooms” or work areas cut into the coalbed—it can mine as much as five tons of coal a minute, more than a non-mechanised miner of the 1920s would produce in an entire day. Continuous miners account for about 45% of underground coal production. Conveyors transport the removed coal from the seam. Remote-controlled continuous miners are used to work in a variety of difficult seams and conditions, and robotic versions controlled by computers are becoming increasingly common.

• Blast mining is an older practice that uses explosives such as dynamite to break up the coal seam, after which the coal is gathered and loaded on to shuttle cars or conveyors for removal to a central loading area. This process consists of a series of operations that begins with “cutting” the coalbed so it will break easily when blasted with explosives. This type of mining accounts for less than 5% of total underground production in the U.S. today.

• Shortwall mining, a method currently accounting for less than 1% of deep coal production, involves the use of a continuous mining machine with moveable roof supports, similar to longwall. The continuous miner shears coal panels 150-200 feet wide and more than a half-mile long, having regard to factors such as geological strata.

• Retreat mining is a method in which the ceiling of the mine is held up by wooden beams. The beams are removed, allowing the ceiling to collapse so miners can reach the coal. This is one of the most dangerous forms of mining owing to imperfect predictability of when the ceiling will collapse and possibly crush or trap workers in the mine.

[edit] Production

Coal is mined commercially in over 50 countries. Over 4 970 Mt of hard coal is currently produced, a nearly 80% increase over the past 25 years.^[8] In 2005, the world production of brown coal and lignite was 906 Mt, with Germany the world’s largest brown coal producer.

Coal production has grown fastest in Asia, while Europe has declined. The top five coal mining nations (figures in brackets are 2006 estimate of hard coal production)^[9] are:

• China (2 482 Mt)
• USA (990 Mt)
• India (427 Mt)
• Australia (309 Mt)
• South Africa (244 Mt)

Most coal production is used in the country of origin, with around 16% of hard coal production being exported.

Global coal production is expected to reach 7 Gt in 2030, with China accounting for most of this increase. Steam coal production is projected to reach around 5200 Mt; coking coal 620 Mt; and brown coal 1200 Mt.^[10]

Coal reserves are available in almost every country worldwide, with recoverable reserves in around 70 countries. At current production levels, proven coal reserves are estimated to last 147 years.^[11]

[edit] Modern mining

Technological advancements have made coal mining today more productive than it has ever been. To keep up with technology and to extract coal as efficiently as possible modern mining personnel must be highly skilled and well trained in the use of complex, state-of-the-art instruments and equipment. Future coal miners have to be highly educated and many jobs require four-year college degrees. Computer knowledge has also become greatly valued within the industry as most of the machines and safety monitors are computerized.

In the United States, the increase in technology has significantly decreased the mining workforce from 335,000 coal miners working at 7,200 mines fifty years ago to 104,824 miners working in fewer than 2,000 mines today. As some might see this as a sign that coal is a declining industry its advances has reported an 83% increase of production from 1970 to 2004^{[citation needed]}.

[edit] Dangers to miners

Historically, coal mining has been a very dangerous activity and the list of historical coal mining disasters is a long one. Open cut hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions; underground mining hazards include suffocation, gas poisoning, roof collapse and gas explosions. Most of these risks can be greatly reduced in modern mines, and multiple fatality incidents are now rare in some parts of the developed world.^[12]

However, in lesser developed countries and some developed countries, many miners continue to die annually, either through direct accidents in coal mines or through adverse health consequences from working under poor conditions. China, in particular, has the highest number of coal mining related deaths in the world, with official statistic 6,027 deaths in 2004.^[13] To compare, the USA reported 28 deaths in the same year.^[14] Coal production in China is twice that of the United States,^[15] while the number of coal miners is around 50 times that of the USA, making deaths in coal mines in China 4 times as common per worker (108 times as common per unit output) as in the USA.

When compared to industrial countries such as China, the U.S. fatality rate is low.^[specify] However in 2006 fatal work injuries among U.S. miners doubled from the previous year, totaling 47.^[16] These figures can in part be attributed to the Sago Mine disaster. The recent mine accident in Utah's Crandall Canyon Mine, where nine miners were killed and six entombed, speaks to the increase in occupational risks faced by U.S. miners.^[17]

Chronic lung diseases, such as pneumoconiosis (black lung) were once common in miners, leading to reduced life expectancy. In some mining countries black lung is still common, with 4000 new cases of black lung every year in the USA (4% of workers annually) and 10 000 new cases every year in China (0.2% of workers).^[18] Rates may be higher than reported in some regions.

Build-ups of a hazardous gas are known as damps, possibly from the German word "Dampf" which means steam or vapor:

• Black damp: a mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen in a mine can cause suffocation.
• After damp: similar to black damp, an after damp consists of carbon dioxide and nitrogen and forms after a mine explosion.
• Fire damp: consists of mostly methane, a flammable gas.
• Stink damp: so named for the rotten egg smell of the sulfur, a stink damp can explode.
• White damp: air containing carbon monoxide which is toxic, even at low concentrations

See also: Mining accidents

[edit] Safer times in modern mining

Improvements in mining methods (e.g. longwall mining), hazardous gas monitoring (such as safety-lamps or more modern electronic gas monitors), gas drainage, and ventilation have reduced many of the risks of rock falls, explosions, and unhealthy air quality. Statistical analyses performed by the U.S. Department of Labor’s Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) show that between 1990 and 2004, the industry cut the rate of injuries by more than half and fatalities by two-thirds. However, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, mining remains the second most dangerous occupation in America.^[19]

[edit] Coal impoundment

Coal impoundments serve a basic need to the coal-mining industry: to store water and waste created during the mining process ^[20].

[edit] Environmental impacts

Main article: Environmental effects of coal

Coal mining can result in a number of adverse effects on the environment. Open cast coal mines leaves areas of land that are no longer usable and leaves a scarred landscape with no scenic value. Rehabilitation can mitigate some of these concerns. Mine tailing dumps produce acid mine drainage which can seep into waterways and aquifers with consequences on ecological and human health. Subsidence of land surfaces due to collapse of mine tunnels can also occur. During the mining operation methane, a potent greenhouse gas and a constituent of fire damp, can be released.

Wherever it occurs in the world, surface mining of coal completely eliminates existing vegetation, destroys the genetic soil profile, displaces or destroys wildlife and habitat, degrades air quality, alters current land uses, and to some extent permanently changes the general topography of the area mined.^[21] The community of micro organisms and nutrient cycling processes are upset by movement, storage, and redistribution of soil.

Generally, soil disturbance and associated compaction result in conditions conducive to erosion. Soil removal from the area to be surface mined alters or destroys many natural soil characteristics, and may reduce its productivity for agriculture or biodiversity. Soil structure may be disturbed by pulverization or aggregate breakdown.

Removal of vegetative cover and activities associated with construction of haul roads, stockpiling of topsoil, displacement of overburden and hauling of spoil and coal increase the quantity of dust around mining operations. Dust degrades air quality in the immediate area, can have adverse impacts on vegetative life, and may constitute a health and safety hazard for mine workers and nearby residents. The land surface, often hundreds of acres, is dedicated to mining activities until it can be reshaped and reclaimed. If mining is allowed, resident human populations must be resettled off the mine site, and economic activities such as agriculture or hunting and gathering food or medicinal plants are displaced, at least temporarily. What becomes of the land surface after mining is determined by the manner in which mining is conducted.

Surface mining can adversely impact the hydrology of any region. Deterioration of stream quality can result from acid mine drainage, toxic trace elements, high content of dissolved solids in mine drainage water, and increased sediment loads discharged to streams. Waste piles and coal storage piles can yield sediment to streams, and leached water from these piles can be acid and contain toxic trace elements. Surface waters may be rendered unfit for agriculture, human consumption, bathing, or other household uses. Controlling these impacts requires careful management of surface water flows into and out of mining operations.

Flood events can cause severe damage to improperly constructed or located coal haul roads, housing, coal crushing and washing plant facilities, waste and coal storage piles, settling basin dams, surface water diversion structures, and the mine itself. Besides the danger to life and property, large amounts of sediment and poor quality water may have detrimental effects many miles downstream from a mine site after a flood.

Ground water supplies may be adversely affected by surface mining. These impacts include drainage of usable water from shallow aquifers; lowering of water levels in adjacent areas and changes in flow directions within aquifers; contamination of usable aquifers below mining operations due to infiltration or percolation of poor quality mine water; and increased infiltration of precipitation on spoil piles. Where coal or carbonaceous shales are present, increased infiltration may result in increased runoff of poor quality water and erosion from spoil piles; recharge of poor quality water to shallow groundwater aquifers; or flow of poor quality water into nearby streams. This may contaminate both ground water and nearby streams for long periods. Lakes formed in abandoned surface mining operations are more likely to be acid if there is coal or carbonaceous shale present in spoil piles, especially if these materials are near the surface and contain pyrites.

Surface mining of coal causes direct and indirect damage to wildlife. The impact on wildlife stems primarily from disturbing, removing, and redistributing the land surface. Some impacts are short-term and confined to the mine site; others may have far reaching, long term effects. The most direct effect on wildlife is destruction or displacement of species in areas of excavation and spoil piling. Mobile wildlife species like game animals, birds, and predators leave these areas. More sedentary animals like invertebrates, many reptiles, burrowing rodents and small mammals may be directly destroyed.

If streams, lakes, ponds or marshes are filled or drained, fish, aquatic invertebrates and amphibians are destroyed. Food supplies for predators are reduced by destruction of these land and water species. Animal populations displaced or destroyed can eventually be replaced from populations in surrounding ranges, provided the habitat is eventually restored. An exception could be extinction of a resident endangered species.

Many wildlife species are highly dependent on vegetation growing in natural drainages. This vegetation provides essential food, nesting sites and cover for escape from predators. Any activity that destroys this vegetation near ponds, reservoirs, marshes, and wetlands reduces the quality and quantity of habitat essential for waterfowl, shore birds, and many terrestrial species. The commonly used head of hollow fill method for disposing of excess overburden is of particular significance to wildlife habitat in some locations. Narrow, steep sided, V shaped hollows near ridge tops are frequently inhabited by rare or endangered animal and plant species. Extensive placement of spoil in these narrow valleys eliminates important habitat for a wide variety of species, some of which may be rendered extinct.

Broad and long lasting impacts on wildlife are caused by habitat impairment. The habitat requirements of many animal species do not permit them to adjust to changes created by land disturbance. These changes reduce living space. The degree to which a species or an individual animal tolerates human competition for space varies. Some species tolerate very little disturbance. In instances where a particularly critical habitat is restricted, such as a lake, pond, or primary breeding area, a species could be eliminated.

Large mammals and other animals displaced from their home ranges may be forced to use adjacent areas already stocked to carrying capacity. This overcrowding usually results in degradation of remaining habitat, lowered carrying capacity, reduced reproductive success, increased interspecies and intraspecies competition, and potentially greater losses to wildlife populations than the number of originally displaced animals.

Removal of soil and rock overburden covering the coal resource, if improperly done, causes burial and loss of top soil, exposes parent material, and creates vast infertile wastelands. Pit and spoil areas are not capable of providing food and cover for most species of wildlife. Without rehabilitation, these areas must go through a weathering period, which may take a few years or many decades, before vegetation is established and they become suitable habitat. With rehabilitation, impacts on some species are less severe. Humans cannot immediately restore natural biotic communities. However, nature may be assisted through human reclamation of land and rehabilitation efforts geared to wildlife needs. Rehabilitation not geared to the needs of wildlife species, or improper management of other land uses after reclamation, can preclude reestablishment of many members of the original fauna.

Degradation of aquatic habitats has often been a major impact from surface mining and may be apparent to some degree many miles from a mine site. Sediment contamination of surface water is common with surface mining. Sediment yields may increase 1000 times over their former level as a direct result of strip mining. In some circumstances, especially those involving disturbance of unconsolidated soils, approximately one acre foot of sediment may be produced annually for every 80 acres of disturbed land.^[22]

The effects of sediment on aquatic wildlife vary with the species and amount of contamination. High sediment loads can kill fish directly, bury spawning beds, reduce light transmission, alter temperature gradients, fill in pools, spread stream flows over wider, shallower areas, and reduce production of aquatic organisms used as food by other species. These changes destroy the habitat of some valued species and may enhance habitat for less desirable species. Current conditions are already marginal for some freshwater fish in the United States. Sedimentation of these waters may result in their elimination. The heaviest sediment pollution of a drainage normally comes within five to 25 years after mining. In some areas, unrevegetated spoil piles continue to erode even 50 to 65 years after mining.^[23]

The presence of acid forming materials exposed by surface mining can affect wildlife by eliminating habitat and by causing direct destruction of some species. Lesser concentrations can suppress productivity, growth rate, and reproduction of many aquatic species. Acids, dilute concentrations of heavy metals, and high alkalinity can cause severe wildlife damage in some areas. The duration of acidic waste pollution can be long term. Estimates of the time required to leach exposed acidic materials in the Eastern United States range from 800 to 3000 years.^[24]

In some situations, surface mining may have beneficial impacts on some wildlife. Where large, continuous tracts of forest, bush land, sagebrush, or grasslands are broken up during mining, increased edges and openings are created. Preferred food and cover plants can be established in these openings to benefit a wide variety of wildlife. Under certain conditions, creation of small lakes in the mined area may also be beneficial, provided their water quality is good. These lakes and ponds may become important water sources for a variety of wildlife inhabiting adjacent areas. Many lakes formed in mine pits are initially of poor quality as aquatic habitat after mining, due to lack of structure, aquatic vegetation, and food species. They may require habitat enhancement and management to be of significant wildlife value.

Surface mining operations and coal transportation facilities are fully dedicated to coal production for the life of a mine. Mining activities incorporating little or no planning to establish postmining land use objectives usually result in reclamation of disturbed lands to a land use condition not equal to the original use. Existing land uses such as livestock grazing, crop and timber production are temporarily eliminated from the mining area. High value, intensive land use areas like urban and transportation systems are not usually affected by mining operations. If mineral values are sufficient, these improvements may be removed to an adjacent area to allow mining.

Surface mining operations have produced cliff-like highwalls as high as 200 feet in the United States. Such highwalls may be created at the end of a surface mining operation where stripping becomes uneconomic, or where a mine reaches the boundary of a current lease or mineral ownership. These highwalls are hazards to people, wildlife, and domestic livestock. They may impede normal wildlife migration routes. Steep slopes also merit special attention because of the significance of impacts associated with them when mined. While impacts from contour mining on steep slopes are of the same type as all mining, the severity of these impacts increase as the degree of slope increases. This is due to increased difficulties in dealing with problems of erosion and land stability on steeper slopes.

Fires sometimes occur in coal beds underground. When coal beds are exposed, the fire risk is increased. Weathered coal can also increase ground temperatures if it is left on the surface. Almost all fires in solid coal are ignited by surface fires caused by people or lightning. Spontaneous combustion is caused when coal oxidizes and air flow is insufficient to dissipate heat, but this occurs only in stockpiles and waste piles, not in bedded coals underground. Where coal fires occur, there is attendant air pollution from emission of smoke and noxious fumes into the atmosphere. Coal seam fires may burn underground for decades, threatening destruction of forests, homes, schools, churches, roadways and other valuable infrastructure. Spontaneous combustion is common in coal stockpiles and refuse piles at mine sites.

Adverse impacts on geological features of human interest may occur in a surface mine area. Geomorphic and geophysical features and outstanding scenic resources may be sacrificed by indiscriminate mining. Paleontological, cultural, and other historic values may be endangered due to disruptive activities of blasting and excavating coal. Stripping of overburden eliminates and destroys all archeological and historic features unless they are removed beforehand.

Extraction of coal by surface mining disrupts virtually all aesthetic elements of the landscape, in some cases only temporarily. Alteration of land forms often imposes unfamiliar and discontinuous configurations. New linear patterns appear as material is extracted and waste piles are developed. Different colors and textures are exposed as vegetative cover is removed and overburden dumped to the side. Dust, vibration, and diesel exhaust odors are created, affecting sight, sound, and smell. Some members of local communities may find such impacts disturbing or unpleasant.

Due to intensive mechanization, surface mines may require fewer workers than underground mines with equivalent production. The influence on human populations from surface mining is therefore not generally as significant as with underground mines. In low population areas, however, local populations cannot provide needed labor so there is migration to the area because new jobs are available at a mine. Unless adequate advance planning is done by government and mine operators, new populations may cause overcrowded schools, hospitals and demands on public services that cannot easily be met. Some social instability may be created in nearby communities by surface coal mining.

Many impacts can be minimized but may not be eliminated entirely by use of best mining practices either voluntarily or to comply with government regulatory programs. Financial incentives to minimize costs of production may minimize use of best mining practices in the absence of effective regulation. Some temporary destruction of the land surface is an environmental price we pay for utilization of coal resources. The scale of disturbance, its duration, and the quality of reclamation are largely determined by management of the operation during mining.

[edit] Coal mining by country

Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion. (August 2008)

[edit] Australia

Main article: Coal mining in Australia

[edit] China

Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion. (September 2008)

[edit] Colombia

Some of the world's largest coal reserves are located in South America, and an opencast at Cerrejón in Colombia is one of the world's largest open pit mines. The output of the mine in 2004 was 24.9 million tons (compared to total global hard coal production of 4,600 million tons). Cerrejón contributes about half of Colombia's coal exports of 52 million tons, with Colombia ranked sixth among major coal exporting nations.The company plans to expand production to 32 million tons by 2008. The company has its own 150km standard-gauge railroad, connecting the mine to its coal-loading terminal at Puerto Bolívar on the Caribbean coast. There are two 120-car unit trains, each carrying 12,000 tons of coal per trip. The round-trip time for each train, including loading and unloading, is about 12 hours. The coal facilities at the port are capable of loading 4,800 tons per hour on to vessels of up to 175,000 tons of dead weight. The mine, railroad and port operate 24 hours per day. Cerrejón directly employs 4,600 workers, with a further 3,800 employed by contractors. The reserves at Cerrejón are low-sulfur, low-ash, bituminous coal. The coal is mostly used for electric power generation, with some also used in steel manufacture. The surface mineable reserves for the current contract are 330 million tons. However, total proven reserves to a depth of 300 metres are 3,000 million tons.

[edit] United States

It has been suggested that this section be split into a new article entitled Coal mining in the United States. (Discuss)

Further information: Category:Coal mining in the United States and Coal in the United States

The American share of world coal production remained steady at about 20% from 1980 to 2005

President Bush in a conference in the West Virginia Coal Association said that there is no more reliable source of electricity than coal ^[25] and put coal at center of US energy independence ^[26].

27 states produce coal.^[27] The major coal-producing states are (in descending order as of 2000, with annual production in thousands of short tons)^{[28] [29]}:

• Wyoming (338,900).
• West Virginia (158,257)
• Kentucky (130,688)
• Pennsylvania (74,619)
• Texas (49,498)
• Montana (38,352)
• Illinois (33,444)
• Virginia (32,834)
• North Dakota (31,270)
• Colorado (29,137)
• Indiana (27,965)
• New Mexico (27,323)
• Utah (26,656)
• Ohio (22,269)
• Alabama (19,324)
• Arizona (13,111)

Total United States: 1,437,174

[edit] Other coal business

Further information: Coal electricity

[edit] See also

• Acid mine drainage
• Black lung disease
• Coal Measures
• Wallarah 2 Coal Project
• Coal slurry impoundment
• Coal-mining region
• Coal train
• Hurrying
• Mine fire
• Problems in coal mining
• World Coal Institute

[edit] References

[edit] Further reading

• Daniel Burns. The modern practice of coal mining (1907)
• Hamilton, Michael S. Mining Environmental Policy: Comparing Indonesia and the USA (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2005).
• Hughes. Herbert W, A Text-Book of Mining: For the Use of Colliery Managers and Others (London, many editions 1892-1917), the standard British textbook for its era.
• James Tonge. The principles and practice of coal mining (1906)
• Charles V. Nielsen and George F. Richardson. 1982 Keystone Coal Industry Manual (1982)
• Hayes, Geoffrey. Coal Mining (2004), 32 pp
• A.K. Srivastava. Coal Mining Industry in India (1998) (ISBN 81-7100-076-2)
• Chirons, Nicholas P. Coal Age Handbook of Coal Surface Mining (ISBN 0-07-011458-7)
• Saleem H. Ali. Minding our Minerals, 2006. [1]
• National Energy Information Center, Greenhouse Gases, Climate Change, Energy, <http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggccebro/chapter1.html>. Retrieved on 16 October 2007 

• The Department of Trade and Industry, The Coal Authority, <http://www.coal.gov.uk/resources/cleanercoaltechnologies/CoalMineandbedmethane.cfm>. Retrieved on 16 October 2007 

[edit] External links

• Abandoned Mine Research
• University of Wollongong - educational resource on longwall mining
• National Coal Mining Museum for England
• World Coal Institute - Coal Mining
• NIOSH Coal Workers' Health Surveillance Program
• Purdue University - Petroleum and Coal