List of states with nuclear weapons
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Nations that are known or believed to possess nuclear weapons are sometimes referred to as the nuclear club. There are currently nine states that have successfully detonated nuclear weapons. Five are considered to be "nuclear weapons states", an internationally recognized status conferred by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). In order of acquisition of nuclear weapons these are: the United States, Russia (successor state to the Soviet Union), the United Kingdom, France, and China.
Since the NPT entered into force in 1970, three states that were not parties to the Treaty have conducted nuclear tests, namely India, Pakistan, and North Korea. North Korea had been a party to the NPT but withdrew in 2003. Israel is also widely believed to have nuclear weapons, though it has refused to confirm or deny this.[1] The status of these nations is not formally recognized by international bodies as none of them are currently parties to the NPT. South Africa has the unique status of a nation which developed nuclear weapons but has since disassembled its arsenal before joining the NPT.
In 2005, the IAEA Board of Governors found Iran in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement[2][3] in a rare non-consensus decision.[4] The UN Security Council imposed sanctions against Iran three times when it refused to suspend its previously undeclared enrichment.[5][6][7][8] Iran has argued that the sanctions are illegal[9] and compel it to abandon its rights under the NPT to peaceful nuclear technology.[5] IAEA Director Mohamed ElBaradei states the agency is unable to resolve "outstanding issues of concerns" while also noting the Agency has "not seen any diversion of nuclear materials... nor the capacity to produce weapons usable materials".[10]
Estimated worldwide nuclear stockpiles
The following is a list of nations that have admitted the possession of nuclear weapons, the approximate number of warheads under their control in 2002, and the year they tested their first weapon. This list is informally known in global politics as the "Nuclear Club". With the exception of Russia and the United States (which have subjected their nuclear forces to independent verification under various treaties) these figures are estimates, in some cases quite unreliable estimates. Also, these figures represent total warheads possessed, rather than deployed. In particular, under the SORT treaty thousands of Russian and U.S. nuclear warheads are in inactive stockpiles awaiting processing. The fissile material contained in the warheads can then be recycled for use in nuclear reactors.
From a high of 65,000 active weapons in 1985, there were about 20,000 active nuclear weapons in the world in 2002. Many of the "decommissioned" weapons were simply stored or partially dismantled, not destroyed.[11] As of 2007, the total number was expected to continue to decline by 30%-50% over the next decade.
| Country | Warheads active/total* | Year of first test |
|---|---|---|
| Five nuclear weapons states from the NPT | ||
 United States |
4,075 / 5,535[12] | 1945 ("Trinity") |
 Russia (former  Soviet Union) |
5,200 / 8,800[13] | 1949 ("RDS-1") |
 United Kingdom |
200[14] | 1952 ("Hurricane") |
 France |
<350[15] | 1960 ("Gerboise Bleue") |
 China |
160-400[16][17] | 1964 ("596") |
| Other known nuclear powers | ||
 India |
65-140[18][19] | 1974 ("Smiling Buddha") |
 Pakistan |
~60[20] | 1998 ("Chagai-I") |
 North Korea |
0-10[21] | 2006 (The Beginning)[22] |
| Undeclared nuclear weapons states | ||
 Israel |
100-200[23][24][25][26] | unknown or 1979 (See Vela Incident) |
*All numbers are estimates from the Natural Resources Defense Council, published in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, unless other references are given. If differences between active and total stockpile are known, they are given as two figures separated by a forward slash. If no specifics are known, only one figure is given. Stockpile number may not contain all intact warheads if a substantial amount of warheads are scheduled for but have not yet gone through dismantlement; not all "active" warheads are deployed at any given time. When a range of weapons is given (e.g., 0–10), it generally indicates that the estimate is being made on the amount of fissile material that has likely been produced, and the amount of fissile material needed per warhead depends on estimates of a country's proficiency at nuclear weapon design.
Five nuclear weapons states from the NPT
- See also: History of nuclear weapons
- The United States developed the first atomic weapons during World War II in co-operation with the United Kingdom and Canada, out of the fear that Nazi Germany would develop them first. It tested its first nuclear weapon in 1945 ("Trinity"), and remains the only country to have used nuclear weapons against another nation, during the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (see: Manhattan Project). It was the first nation to develop the hydrogen bomb, testing it ("Ivy Mike") in 1952 and a deployable version in 1954 ("Castle Bravo").[27][28]
- See also: United States and weapons of mass destruction#Nuclear weapons
- The Soviet Union tested its first nuclear weapon ("Joe-1") in 1949, in a crash project developed partially with espionage obtained during and after World War II (see: Soviet atomic bomb project). The USSR was the second nation to have developed and tested a nuclear weapon. The direct motivation for their weapons development was the development of a balance of power during the Cold War. It tested a primitive hydrogen bomb in 1953 ("Joe-4") and a megaton-range hydrogen bomb in 1955 ("RDS-37"). The Soviet Union also tested the most powerful explosive ever detonated by humans, ("Tsar Bomba"), with a theoretical yield of 100 megatons, intentionally reduced to 50 when detonated. After its dissolution in 1991, the Soviets' weapons entered officially into the possession of Russia.[29]
- See also: Russia and weapons of mass destruction#Nuclear weapons
- The United Kingdom tested its first nuclear weapon ("Hurricane") in 1952, drawing largely on data gained while collaborating with the United States during the Manhattan Project. The UK was the first nation in Western Europe to have developed and tested a nuclear weapon. Its program was motivated to have an independent deterrent against the USSR, while also remaining relevant in Cold War Europe. It tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1957.[30][31] It maintains the Trident ballistic missile fleet of four 'Vanguard' class nuclear-powered submarines. The British government controversially announced a replacement to the current Trident system to take place over the next decade (see British replacement of the Trident system).
- France tested its first nuclear weapon in 1960 ("Gerboise Bleue"), based mostly on its own research. It was motivated by the Suez Crisis diplomatic tension vis-à-vis both the USSR and the Free World allies United States and United Kingdom. It was also relevant to retain great power status, alongside the United Kingdom, during the post-colonial Cold War (see: Force de frappe). France tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1968 ("Opération Canopus"). After the Cold War, France has disarmed 175 warheads with the reduction and modernization of its arsenal that has now evolved to a dual system based on submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SSBN) and medium-range air-to-surface missiles (Rafale fighter-bombers). However new nuclear weapons are in development and reformed nuclear squadrons were trained during Enduring Freedom operation in Afghanistan. In January 2006, President Jacques Chirac stated a terrorist act or the use of weapons of mass destruction against France would result in a nuclear counterattack.[32]
- China tested its first nuclear weapon in 1964 in the 596 test. The weapon was developed as a deterrent against both the United States and the USSR. It tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1967 at Lop Nur.[33] The country is currently thought to have had a stockpile of around 130 warheads.[34]
Other known nuclear powers
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India has never been a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. It tested a "peaceful nuclear device", as it was described by the Indian government, in 1974 ("Smiling Buddha"), the first test developed after the creation of the NPT, and created new questions about how civilian nuclear technology could be diverted secretly to weapons purposes (dual-use technology). India's secret development caused great concern and anger particularly from nations that had supplied it nuclear reactors for peaceful and power generating needs such as Canada. It appears to have been primarily motivated as a general deterrent, as well as an attempt to project India as regional power. It tested weaponized nuclear warheads in 1998 ("Operation Shakti"), including a thermonuclear device.[35] In July 2005, it was officially recognized by the United States as "a responsible state with advanced nuclear technology" and agreed to full nuclear cooperation between the two nations.[36] This is seen as a tacit entry into the nuclear club of the above nations. In March 2006, a civil nuclear cooperation deal was signed between President George W. Bush and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. This deal, ratified by the United States House of Representatives and United States Senate in December 2006 would pave the path for the United States and other members of the Nuclear Suppliers Group to sell civilian nuclear technology to India. As of September 2005, India was estimated to have had a stockpile of around 100-140 warheads.[37] In addition, Defense News reported in their November 1, 2004 edition, that "[an Indian] Defence Ministry source told Defense News in late 2004 that in the next five to seven years India will have 300–400 nuclear and thermonuclear weapons distributed to air, sea, and land forces." It has already been demonstrated by studies carried out by analysts at the US-based Carnegie Endowment that India currently possesses enough plutonium to produce and maintain an arsenal of 1,000-2,000 warheads and that it is purely as a result of India's own political choice that their arsenal has been set at a much more limited size (200-400 warheads).[38] According to the calculations of one of the key advisers to the US Nuclear deal negotiating team, Ashley Tellis:
Operating India’s eight unsafeguarded PHWRs in such a [conservative] regime would bequeath New Delhi with some 12,135–13,370 kilograms of weapons-grade plutonium, which is sufficient to produce between 2,023–2,228 nuclear weapons over and above those already existing in the Indian arsenal. Although no Indian analyst, let alone a policy maker, has ever advocated any nuclear inventory that even remotely approximates such numbers, this heuristic exercise confirms that New Delhi has the capability to produce a gigantic nuclear arsenal while subsisting well within the lowest estimates of its known uranium reserves.[39]
- Pakistan is not a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty either. Pakistan covertly developed nuclear weapons over many decades, beginning in the late 1970s. Pakistan first delved into nuclear power after the establishment of its first nuclear power plant near Karachi with equipment and materials supplied mainly by western nations in the early 1970s. Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto promised in 1965 that if India built nuclear weapons Pakistan would too, "even if we have to eat grass." It is nearly certain that China supplied an old Chinese (Lop Nor 3/4 vintage) weapons design and critical ring magnets to Pakistan in the early 1980s, and enabled Pakistan to have a rudimentary nuclear weapons capability by the end of the 1980s. The United States continued to certify that Pakistan did not possess nuclear weapons until 1990, when sanctions were imposed under the Pressler Amendment, requiring a cutoff of U.S. economic and military assistance to Pakistan.[40] In 1998, Pakistan conducted its first nuclear tests at the Chagai Hills, in response to the tests conducted by India a few weeks before.
- North Korea was a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, but announced a withdrawal on January 10, 2003 after the United States accused it of having a secret uranium enrichment program and cut off energy assistance under the 1994 Agreed Framework. In February 2005 they claimed to possess functional nuclear weapons, though their lack of a test at the time led many experts to doubt the claim. However, in October 2006, North Korea stated that due to growing intimidation by the USA, it would conduct a nuclear test to confirm its nuclear status. North Korea reported a successful nuclear test on October 9, 2006 (see 2006 North Korean nuclear test). Most U.S. intelligence officials believe that North Korea did, in fact, test a nuclear device due to radioactive isotopes detected by U.S. aircraft; however, most agree that the test was probably only partially successful.[41] The yield may have been less than a kiloton, which is much smaller than the first successful tests of other powers; however, boosted fission weapons may have an unboosted yield in this range, which is sufficient to start deuterium-tritium fusion in the boost gas at the center; the fast neutrons from fusion then insure a full fission yield.
Undeclared nuclear states
- Israel is not a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and refuses to officially confirm or deny having a nuclear arsenal, or having developed nuclear weapons, or even having a nuclear weapons program. Israel has pledged not to be the first country to introduce nuclear weapons into the region, but is also pursuing a policy of strategic ambiguity with regard to their possession. In the late 1960s, Israeli Ambassador to the US Yitzhak Rabin informed the United States State Department, that its understanding of "introducing" such weapons meant that they would be tested and publicly declared, while merely possessing the weapons did not constitute "introducing" them.[42] Although Israel claims that the Negev Nuclear Research Center near Dimona is a "research reactor", or, as was originally claimed, a "textile factory," no scientific reports based on work done there have ever been published. Extensive information about the program in Dimona was also disclosed by technician Mordechai Vanunu in 1986.
- According to the Natural Resources Defense Council and the Federation of American Scientists, Israel possesses around 75–200 weapons.[43] Imagery analysts can identify weapon bunkers, mobile missile launchers, and launch sites in satellite photographs. Israel may have tested a nuclear weapon along with South Africa in 1979, but this has never been confirmed (see Vela Incident).
- On May 26, 2008, ex-US president Jimmy Carter stated Israel has, “150 or more nuclear warheads” at a press conference at the annual literary Hay festival in Wales.[23]
- Further information: Israel and weapons of mass destruction
States alleged to have nuclear weapons programs
Below are countries which have been accused by Israel or the United States of currently attempting to develop nuclear weapons technology.
- A U.S. National Intelligence Estimate of December 3, 2007 judged with "high confidence" that Iran had an active nuclear weapons program which was halted in fall 2003 and with "moderate confidence" that it remained halted as of mid-2007. The estimate further judged that US intelligence did not know whether Iran intended "to develop nuclear weapons," but that "Iran probably would be technically capable of producing enough HEU [highly enriched uranium] for a weapon sometime during the 2010-2015 time frame" if it decides to do so.[44] IAEA Director General ElBaradei noted in particular that the Estimate tallies with the Agency's consistent statements over the last few years that "although Iran still needs to clarify some important aspects of its past and present nuclear activities, the Agency has no concrete evidence of an ongoing nuclear weapons program or undeclared nuclear facilities in Iran."[45] Iran's representative to the UN has explained that Iran categorically rejects the development of nuclear weapons and Iran is guaranteed the right to peaceful nuclear technology under the NPT.[5]
- On September 6, 2007, Israel bombed an officially unidentified site in Syria which it later asserted was a nuclear reactor under construction (see Operation Orchard).[46] The alleged nuclear reactor was not yet operational and no nuclear material had been introduced into it.[47] Top U.S. intelligence officials claimed low confidence that the site was meant for weapons development, noting that there was no reprocessing facility at the site.[48] Press reports[49] indicated the air strike followed a shipment delivery to Syria by a North Korean freighter, and that North Korea was suspected to be supplying a reactor to Syria for an alleged nuclear weapons program. On October 24, 2007 the Institute for Science and International Security released a report[50] which identified a site next to the Euphrates River in eastern Syria's Deir ez-Zor Governorate province, about 11 kilometers north of the village of At Tibnah, at ), as the suspected reactor. The building appeared to match the external structure of the North Korean 5 megawatt reactor at Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center, and is surrounded by a security barrier and hidden within a small side canyon off the main river valley. After refusing to comment on the reports for six months, the White House briefed Congress and the IAEA on April 24, 2008, saying that the U.S. Government was "convinced" that Syria had been building a "covert nuclear reactor" that was "not intended for peaceful purposes."[51] Syria denounced "the fabrication and forging of facts" in regards to the incident.[52] IAEA Director General Mohamed ElBaradei criticized the strikes and deplored that information regarding the matter had not been shared with his agency earlier.[48]
Nuclear weapons sharing
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Under NATO nuclear weapons sharing, the United States has provided nuclear weapons for Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Turkey to deploy and store.[53] This involves pilots and other staff of the "non-nuclear" NATO states practicing handling and delivering the U.S. nuclear bombs, and adapting non-U.S. warplanes to deliver U.S. nuclear bombs. Until 1984 Canada also received shared nuclear weapons, and until 2001, Greece.[54] Members of the Non-Aligned Movement have called on all countries to "refrain from nuclear sharing for military purposes under any kind of security arrangements."[55] The Institute of Strategic Studies Islamabad (ISSI) has criticized the arrangement for allegedly violating Article I and II of the NPT, arguing that "these Articles do not permit the NWS to delegate the control of their nuclear weapons directly or indirectly to others."[56] NATO has argued that the weapons' sharing is compliant with the NPT because "the U.S. nuclear weapons based in Europe are in the sole possession and under constant and complete custody and control of the United States."[57]
States formerly possessing nuclear weapons
Nuclear weapons have been present in many nations, often as staging grounds under control of other powers. However, in only a few instances have nations given up nuclear weapons after being in control of them; in most cases this has been because of special political circumstances. The fall of the USSR, for example, left several former Soviet-bloc countries in possession of nuclear weapons.
- South Africa produced six nuclear weapons in the 1980s, but disassembled them in the early 1990s. In 1979, there was a putative detection of a clandestine nuclear test in the Indian Ocean, and it has long been speculated that it was potentially a test by South Africa, perhaps in collaboration with Israel, though this has never been confirmed (see Vela Incident). South Africa signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1991.[58]
Former Soviet countries
Belarus had 81 single warhead missiles stationed on its territory after the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991. They were all transferred to Russia by 1996. Belarus has signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.[59]
Kazakhstan inherited 1,400 nuclear weapons from the Soviet Union, and transferred them all to Russia by 1995. Kazakhstan has signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.[60]
Ukraine has signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Ukraine inherited about 5,000 nuclear weapons when it became independent from the USSR in 1991, making its nuclear arsenal the third-largest in the world.[61] By 1996, Ukraine had voluntarily disposed of all nuclear weapons within its territory, transferring them to Russia.[62]
See also
- Nuclear disarmament
- Nuclear proliferation
- Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
- Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
- Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone
- Nuclear war
- Swedish nuclear weapon program
References
- ^ Calls for Olmert to resign after nuclear gaffe | Israel and the Middle East | Guardian Unlimited
- ^ IAEA Board of Governors: "Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement in the Islamic Republic of Iran" (September 2005)
- ^ IAEA Board of Governors: "Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement in the Islamic Republic of Iran" (February 2006)
- ^ ASIL Insight - Iran’s Resumption of its Nuclear Program: Addendum
- ^ a b c "Security Council Imposes Sanctions on Iran for failure to halt Uranium Enrichment, Unanimously adopting Resolution 1737 (2006)" (2006-12-23).
- ^ "Security Council tightens sanctions against Iran over uranium enrichment" (2007-03-24).
- ^ Security Council Tightens Restrictions on Iran’s Proliferation-Sensitive Nuclear Activities, Increases Vigilance Over Iranian Banks, Has States Inspect Cargo
- ^ "UN Security Council demands that Iran suspend nuclear activities". UN News Centre (2006-07-31).
- ^ "IAEA INFCIRC/724: Communication from Iran (28 March 2008)" (2008-03-28).
- ^ "Director General Briefs Press On Iran/DPRK". IAEA Staff Report (2006-07-31).
- ^ Webster, Paul (July/August 2003). "Just like old times," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 59:4: 30–35. [1]
- ^ Norris, Robert S., and Hans M. Kristensen, "U.S. nuclear forces, 2008", Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 64:1 (March/April 2008): 50-53, [2].
- ^ Russian Nuclear Forces 2007
- ^ "Government announces intention to maintain the UK's Nuclear Deterrent", Defence News, UK Ministry of Defence (4 December 2006). "We have already reduced our operationally available stockpile to less than 200 and today's decision will see that number reduced to less than 160."
- ^ Norris, Robert S. and Hans M. Kristensen. "French nuclear forces, 2005," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 61:4 (July/August 2005): 73-75,[3]
- ^ Norris, Robert S. and Hans M. Kristensen. "Global Nuclear Stockpiles, 1945-2006," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 62:4 (June/July 2006): 64-67
- ^ http://www.cdi.org/program/document.cfm?documentid=2824&programID=32&from_page=../friendlyversion/printversion.cfm
- ^ “India’s Nuclear Forces, 2005,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, September/October 2005, pp. 73-75
- ^ [http://www.isis-online.org/global_stocks/end2003/india_military_plutonium.pdf David Albright, “India’s Military Plutonium Inventory, End 2004,” Institute for Science and International Security, May 2005.
- ^ Norris, Robert S. and Hans M. Kristensen. "Pakistan's nuclear forces, 2007," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 63:3 (May/June 2007): 71-74,[4]
- ^ Norris, Robert S. and Hans M. Kristensen. "North Korea's nuclear program, 2005," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 61:3 (May/June 2005): 64-67,[5]
- ^ globalsecurity.org. Nuclear Weapons Testing - North Korean Statements
- ^ a b BBC NEWS | Middle East | Israel 'has 150 nuclear weapons'
- ^ Norris, Robert S., William Arkin, Hans M. Kristensen, and Joshua Handler. "Israeli nuclear forces, 2002," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 58:5 (September/October 2002): 73-75.
- ^ Federation of American Scientists: Nuclear Weapons - Israel
- ^ Arms Control Association: Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance
- ^ Hansen, Chuck (1988). U.S. nuclear weapons: The secret history. Arlington, TX: Aerofax. ISBN 0-517-56740-7.
- ^ Hansen, Chuck (1995). The Swords of Armageddon: U.S. nuclear weapons development since 1945. Sunnyvale, CA: Chukelea Publications.
- ^ Holloway, David (1994). Stalin and the bomb: The Soviet Union and atomic energy, 1939-1956. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-06056-4.
- ^ Gowing, Margaret (1974). Independence and deterrence: Britain and atomic energy, 1945-1952. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0333157818.
- ^ Arnold, Lorna (2001). Britain and the H-bomb. Basingstoke: Palgrave. ISBN 0312235186.
- ^ France 'would use nuclear arms' (BBC, January 2006)
- ^ John Wilson Lewis and Xue Litai, China Builds the Bomb (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1988). ISBN 0804714525
- ^ Norris, Robert S. and Hans M. Kristensen. "Chinese nuclear forces, 2006," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 62:3 (May/June 2006): 60-63, [6]; Lewis, Jeffery. "The ambiguous arsenal," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 61:3 (May/June 2005): 52-59. [7].
- ^ "India's Nuclear Weapons Program: Operation Shakti: 1998". Retrieved on 10-10-2006.
- ^ Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (carnegieendowment.org), Proliferation Analysis: A Nuclear Triumph for India
- ^ Norris, Robert S. and Hans M. Kristensen. "India's nuclear forces, 2005", Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 61:5 (September/October 2005): 73–75,[8]
- ^ {{cite web|url=http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/atomsforwarfinal4.pdf|title=P.31-P.36, Tellis, Ashley, "Atoms for War? U.S.-Indian Civilian Nuclear Cooperation and India's Nuclear Arsenal"
- ^ {{cite web|url=http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files
- ^ Case Studies in Sanctions and Terrorism: Pakistan
- ^ CIA's Hayden: North Korea Nuke Test 'Was a Failure'
- ^ Avner Cohen and William Burr, "-http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/04/28/AR2006042801326_pf.html The Untold Story of Israel's Bomb]," Washington Post, April 30, 2006; B01.
- ^ Federation of American Scientists (fas.org) (August 17, 2000) Israel's Nuclear Weapons
- ^ Iran: Nuclear Intentions and Capabilities (National Intelligence Estimate)
- ^ Statement by IAEA Director General on New U.S. Intelligence Estimate on Iran (4 December 2007), IAEA.org
- ^ 6 September 2007 Air strike at globalsecurity.org, accessed October 24, 2007.
- ^ IAEA: Statement by IAEA Director General Mohamed ElBaradei regarding Syria
- ^ a b IAEA slams U.S. for withholding data on alleged Syrian nuclear reactor
- ^ N. Korea, Syria May Be at Work on Nuclear Facility, Glenn Kessler, Washington Post, Thursday, September 13, 2007; Page A12
- ^ SUSPECT REACTOR CONSTRUCTION SITE IN EASTERN SYRIA: THE SITE OF THE SEPTEMBER 6 ISRAELI RAID?, David Albright and Paul Brannan, October 23, 2007
- ^ Statement by the Press Secretary
- ^ Syria rejects U.S. allegations on existence of nuclear activities
- ^ Berlin Information-center for Transatlantic Security: NATO Nuclear Sharing and the N.PT - Questions to be Answered
- ^ Hans M. Kristensen (February 2005), U.S. Nuclear Weapons in Europe, Natural Resources Defense Council, <http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/euro/euro.pdf>. Retrieved on 23 May 2006
- ^ Statement on behalf of the non-aligned state parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, 2 May 2005
- ^ ISSI - NPT in 2000: Challenges ahead, Zafar Nawaz Jaspal, The Institute of Strategic Studies, Islamabad
- ^ NATO's Positions Regarding Nuclear Non-Proliferation, Arms Control and Disarmament and Related Issues, NATO, June 2005
- ^ Federation of American Scientists (fas.org) (May 29, 2000). Nuclear Weapons Program (South Africa)
- ^ Federation of American Scientists (fas.org). Belarus Special Weapons
- ^ Federation of American Scientists (fas.org). Kazakhstan Special Weapons
- ^ globalsecurity.org. Ukraine Special Weapons
- ^ Federation of American Scientists (fas.org). Ukraine Special Weapons
External links
- "Global Nuclear Stockpiles, 1945–2006" from Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
- Nuclear Threat Initiative
- Globalsecurity.org — World Special Weapons Guide
- The Nuclear Weapon Archive
- U.S. Nuclear Weapons in Europe: A review of post-Cold War policy, force levels, and war planning NRDC, February 2005
- Pakistani Nuclear Development
- Online NewsHour with Jim Lehrer:Tracking Nuclear Proliferation
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