Jehovah's Witnesses

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Jehovah's Witnesses

Watchtower Buildings in Brooklyn, New York
Classification Restorationist
Orientation Christian
Polity Hierarchical
Founder Charles Taze Russell (founded Bible Student movement)
Origin 1876: Bible Students founded
1931: Adopted name
Pennsylvania and New York, USA
Branched from Millerite and Adventist movements
Separations See Jehovah's Witnesses
splinter groups
Geographical Area Worldwide
Statistics
Congregations 101,376
Members 7.6 million
Statistics from 2008 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses is a restorationist[1], millenialist[2] Christian denomination. The religion emerged from the Bible Student Movement, founded in the late 19th century by Charles Taze Russell, and today claims an active worldwide membership of 7.6 million. Those members are most well-known for their door-to-door preaching ministry, their refusal to serve in the military and take blood transfusions.[3]

The religion has achieved significance through its contributions to medical practice in bloodless surgery, US & Canadian constitutional law concerning civil liberties and conscientious objection to military service, and an international publishing and missionary activity.[4] The religion's pacifist stance has brought it into conflict with governments which conscript male citizens for military service[5][6] and activities of Jehovah's Witnesses are banned in some countries.

The group has been criticized as authoritarian[7] and accused of coercing members to obey doctrines including the ban on blood transfusions.[8] The religion is said to demand unquestioning obedience from members, with the threat of expulsion facing any who fail to comply with, express doubts about, or disagree with, doctrines.[9]

Contents

[edit] History

See main article: History of Jehovah's Witnesses
Charles Taze Russell (1852–1916)
Charles Taze Russell (1852–1916)

[edit] Charles Taze Russell and the Bible Students

In July 1879, Charles Taze Russell began publishing his own magazine, Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence.[10][11] On February 16, 1884, he formed Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society with W. H. Conley as president and C. T. Russell as secretary and treasurer. [12] In 1884, it was incorporated, with Russell as president.[13]

[edit] Presidency of Joseph Franklin Rutherford

Following Russell's death on October 31, 1916, an editorial committee of five was set up to supervise the writing of the Watch Tower magazine, as set forth in Russell's Last Will and Testament.[14] On January 6, 1917, Joseph Franklin Rutherford (also known as "Judge" Rutherford) was elected unopposed as the second president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.[15]

Joseph Franklin Rutherford (1869–1942)
Joseph Franklin Rutherford (1869–1942)

A power struggle soon developed between Rutherford — described as an autocrat who ruled with a rod of iron[16] — and four of the seven-member Board of Directors of the Society. Matters reached a climax on July 17, 1917 as the book The Finished Mystery was released to the headquarters staff in Brooklyn.[17] Rutherford announced to the staff that he was also dismissing the four directors and replacing them with new members, claiming they had not been legally elected.[18] As a consequence of the leadership controversy, a number of splinter groups formed from the International Bible Students Association. [19]

The Finished Mystery was controversial for its criticism of Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in war.[20] Citing this book, the United States federal government indicted Rutherford and the new board of directors for violation of the Espionage Act on May 7, 1918. They were found guilty and sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. However, in March 1919, the judgment against them was reversed and they were released from prison.[21] The charges were later dropped.[22] Patriotic fervor during World War I fueled persecution of the Bible Students both in America and in Europe,[23] including mob violence and tarring and feathering.[16]

[edit] Doctrinal changes under Rutherford's presidency

At an international convention held at Cedar Point, Ohio in September 1922, a new emphasis was made on house-to-house preaching.[24] The period from 1925–1933 saw many significant changes in doctrine. Attendance at their yearly Memorial dropped from a high of 90,434 in 1925[25] down to 17,380 in 1928,[26] due to the previous power struggle, the failed expectations for the year 1925,and the evolving doctrinal changes which alienated those who sided with Russell's views. [27][28]

On July 26, 1931, the name Jehovah's Witnesses was adopted by resolution at a convention in Columbus, Ohio.[29] By 1933, the year 1914 was seen as the beginning of Christ's presence (Greek: pa'rou'si'a), his enthronement as king, and the start of the "last days" instead of being considered the terminal date in their chronology.[30] The offices and election of elders and deacons (called "ministerial servants") were also discontinued during this era with all such positions in local congregations being appointed by headquarters.[31]Converts to the movement after 1935 were generally identified as those who, if worthy, would survive Armageddon and live on a paradise earth. Membership before this time was generally composed of those who believed they would be resurrected to live in heaven to rule over the earth with Christ. [32]

[edit] World War II and more persecution

Hitler's Nazi Germany persecuted Jehovah's Witnesses and many were imprisoned in concentration camps. Their identifying badge was a purple triangle.[33] In the book, Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi Regime, author Hans Hesse commented, "Some five thousand Jehovah's Witnesses were sent to concentration camps where they alone were 'voluntary prisoners', so termed because the moment they recanted their views, they could be freed. Some lost their lives in the camps, but few renounced their faith."[34] During this time period, Witnesses also experienced mob violence in America and were temporarily banned in Canada and Australia because they were perceived as being against the war effort.[35]

See also: Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany

[edit] Nathan Knorr and reorganization

On January 13, 1942, Nathan Homer Knorr succeeded Rutherford and was named the third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. Knorr founded the Watchtower Bible School of Gilead to train missionaries, as well as the Theocratic Ministry School to train preaching and teaching at the congregational level. Significant Supreme Court victories involving the rights of free speech and religion for Jehovah's Witnesses have had a great impact on legal interpretation of these rights for others.[36] In 1943, the United States Supreme Court ruled in West Virginia State Board of Education vs. Barnette that school children of Jehovah's Witnesses could not be compelled to recite the Pledge of Alliegance. In the United States, over 60 Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses have shaped First Amendment law. By 1988, the U.S. Supreme Court had reviewed 71 cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses, two thirds of which were decided in their favor.

Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their preaching from house to house
Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their preaching from house to house

Knorr's vice-president Frederick William Franz became the leading theologian, and is believed to have been the principal translator of the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.[37] Since 1942, Witness publications have been produced under a policy of anonymity. Also produced were a Greek-English New Testament interlinear (The Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures) and a Bible dictionary (Aid to Bible Understanding).[38] The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments being made from headquarters.[39]

During the 1960s[40] and early 1970s, various references were made in Witnesses' literature and at assemblies, implying that Christ's thousand-year millennial reign might begin by 1975.[41] The chronology pointing to 1975 was noted in the secular media at the time.[42] From 1975 to 1980, there was a drop in membership following an uneventful 1975.[43] In 1980, the Watchtower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding the year 1975.[44]

[edit] Further reorganization

In 1976, the leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses was reorganized, and the power of the presidency passed on to the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses of the Watch Tower Society. After Knorr's death in 1977, the presidents have been Frederick William Franz, Milton George Henschel and Don A. Adams. However, since 1976, doctrinal and organizational decisions have been made by the Governing Body and they supervise the writing of Watchtower publications.[45]

[edit] Organization

See main article: Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses have no formal clergy-laity division. All baptized members are ordained ministers and share in the preaching and teaching work. Spiritually mature men in each congregation serve as Elders. A body of Elders supervises each congregation. Guidance and instructions are provided by a multinational governing body made up of longtime Witnesses who currently serve at the international offices of Jehovah's Witnesses in Brooklyn, New York.[46]

[edit] Beliefs

Main article: Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses

[edit] Jehovah

Also pronounced YAHWEH, the name "Jehovah" is a hybrid rendering of the Biblical Hebrew letters "yod-hey-vov-hey" (YHWH), the Tetragrammaton combined with the vowel sounds of adonai.
Also pronounced YAHWEH, the name "Jehovah" is a hybrid rendering of the Biblical Hebrew letters "yod-hey-vov-hey" (YHWH), the Tetragrammaton combined with the vowel sounds of adonai.

Jehovah's Witnesses give emphasis to the use of God's Biblical name, the Tetragrammaton, and in English they prefer to use the transliteration Jehovah.[47] Jehovah's Witnesses see mankind as participants in a challenge involving the competing claims of Jehovah God and Satan to universal sovereignty.[48]

[edit] Jesus Christ

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus was created by Jehovah.[49] Then Jehovah created everything else by means of Jesus.[50] While on earth as a human, Jesus performed miracles, but he does not perform them now.[51] The Appendix to the New World Translation Reference Edition contains one of the drawings by Justus Lipius as the Witnesses' understanding of the instrument of Christ's death, a torture stake. The New World Translation reads at 1 Peter 3:18 that Christ was made "alive in the spirit."[52] Jesus served as a ransom sacrifice to pay for the sins of mankind.[53] Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus and the Archangel Michael are the same being.[54][55]

[edit] Salvation

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that salvation from sin is necessary because Jehovah punishes all wickedness, but that everlasting life is possible for those who repent.[56] Their salvation is not experienced as a sudden moment of realisation.[57] Publications of Jehovah's Witnesses have stated that only those serving Jehovah will survive God's judgment of the world.[58]

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus' death was necessary to atone for the sin brought into the world by the first man, Adam, opening the way for the hope of everlasting life for mankind, and that 144,000 anointed Christians will receive immortal life in heaven as co-rulers with Christ, ruling over the rest of mankind during the Millennial Reign. Witnesses believe that God’s kingdom was established "in heaven with Christ Jesus as King" in 1914[59] and that during the war of Armageddon, the wicked will be destroyed[60], while the survivors along with millions of others who will be resurrected will form a new earthly society ruled by a heavenly government, with the possibility of living forever in an earthly paradise.[61] and that all who reject Jehovah and his ways will die at the battle of Armageddon preceding this event.

The vast majority of Jehovah's Witnesses expect to live in a renewed paradise on Earth.[62] Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus' first act as King in 1914 was to throw Satan out of heaven. Those of the 144,000 who had already died are believed to have been resurrected as spirit creatures to heavenly life 1918. Since then, any remaining members of the 144,000 who die are believed to be immediately resurrected to heavenly life, based on their understanding of 1 Corinthians 15:51, 52. They also teach that it is up to Jesus, and not people, to judge individuals.[63] The prospect for small children and the mentally ill is unknown. [64][65]

They believe that after Armageddon, the majority of mankind who have died, both righteous and unrighteous, will be resurrected, with the chance of being judged righteous and living forever in paradise. The resurrected ones have a period of 1000 years to demonstrate obedience. During this period the, 144,000 rule as kings and judges along with Jesus. After the period of 1000 years, Satan and his demons will be given a chance to mislead people again. Then Satan and any who follow him will be destroyed. Thereafter, faithful humans will live forever on earth.[66][67]

[edit] Mortality

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that death is a state of non-existence with no consciousness. They do not believe in any Hell of fiery torment.. Hades and Sheol are understood to be the "common grave".[68][69][70] They consider the soul to be the living being that expires.[71] Their hope for life after death involves being resurrected by God, either bodily on earth after Armageddon, or to heaven for the limited number of 144,000.

[edit] Authority of the Bible

Jehovah's Witnesses consider the entire Bible (following the Protestant canon, hence excluding the deuterocanonical books), to be the inspired word of God, historically and mostly literally true.[72][73] They do not consider themselves to be fundamentalist.[74][75][76]

Because of the intellectual expounding of their interpretation of the Bible, they have been termed "a rational religion".[77][78] The New World Translation reads at John 17:3 that everlasting life depends in part on "taking in knowledge" of God.

Jehovah’s Witness consider their religion the “sole visible channel” of Jehovah, and that the Bible cannot be understood without the assistance and guidance of what they call “Jehovah’s visible organization”.[79]

[edit] Ethics and morality

Jehovah's Witnesses meet in buildings called Kingdom Halls, like this one in Germany.
Jehovah's Witnesses meet in buildings called Kingdom Halls, like this one in Germany.

Their view of morality reflects conservative Christian values. All sexual relations outside of marriage are grounds for expulsion (disfellowshipping) from the group.[80] Abortion is considered murder.[81] Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasized. Gambling[82], drunkenness, illegal drugs, and tobacco use are strictly forbidden.

The family structure is patriarchal. The husband is considered the final authority on family decisions, but is encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings, as well as those of his children. Marriages are required to be monogamous.[83] Divorce is condemned for any reason other than adultery. Abuse and willful nonsupport of one's family are considered grounds for separation.

[edit] Avoidance of interfaith activity

The Witnesses contend that the Bible has always condemned the mixing of religions because there can only be one truth from God.[84][85] They believe only their religion represents true Christianity and that all other religions fail to meet all the requirements set by God and will be done away with. [86] The Witnesses are opposed to 'councils' that unite or combine different religions. [87]

[edit] Holidays

Weddings, anniversaries, and funerals are observed.

Religious holidays such as New Year's Day, Halloween, Easter, and Christmas are not celebrated, for they regard these as pagan (non-Christian) in origin and have published information regarding the origins of these and others. Their sources have been varied, drawing upon The Encyclopædia Britannica, The Catholic Encyclopedia, The World Book Encyclopedia, The Encyclopedia Americana, and similar publicly available resources.[88]

They also refrain from most celebrations that focus on individuals, such as birthdays, referencing scriptures such as Genesis 40:20; Ecclesiastes 7:1, 2; Matthew 14:6; Acts 10:25, 26; 12:21-23; Romans 13:13; Revelation 19:10.[89]

[edit] Relationship with governments

Jehovah's Witnesses believe their allegiance belongs to God's Kingdom, which is viewed as an actual government. Thus they refrain from saluting the flag of any country or singing nationalistic songs.[90] They believe that these acts are tantamount to worship. The political neutrality of Jehovah's Witnesses is also expressed by their refusal to participate in military service – even when it is compulsory – and by their detachment from secular politics. Voting in political elections is considered compromising their Christian neutrality. However, they believe that they owe the secular authorities their obedience. Members are expected to obey all laws of their native governments, so long as these do not violate God's law.[91][92] They are instructed to pay all taxes of the country in which they reside, considering the government to be solely responsible for how they are used.[93][94]

[edit] Education

Jehovah's Witnesses are instructed to make their preaching work the top priority in their life. Members who pursue tertiary education are instructed to keep their studies secondary to 'spiritual responsibilities'.[95]

Jehovah's Witnesses provide various religious training programs for their members. Some examples are the Theocratic Ministry School (available for everyone), Pioneer Service School, Ministerial Training School, Gilead Missionary School, and others, specifically focused on improving skills for their ministry.

[edit] Blood

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and blood
Jehovah's Witnesses most often reject transfusions of whole allogeneic blood
Jehovah's Witnesses most often reject transfusions of whole allogeneic blood

Jehovah's Witnesses are opposed to blood transfusions based on their understanding of how the Bible says blood should be treated.[96] In 1961, accepting a blood transfusion became grounds for expulsion from the religion.[97] They do not accept the threat of death as sufficient to dissuade them from rejecting blood transfusions for themselves or their children.[98] Jehovah's Witnesses cite the Biblical precedent that states:

“For the holy spirit and we ourselves have favored adding no further burden to you, except these necessary things, to keep abstaining from things sacrificed to idols and from blood and from things strangled and from fornication. If you carefully keep yourselves from these things, you will prosper. Good health to you!” (Ac 15:22, 28, 29)

While Jehovah's Witnesses choose not to accept red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma, they may choose to accept fractions made from these components at their own discretion.[99][100] If a fraction, "makes up a significant portion of that component" or "carries out the key function of a primary component" it may be objectionable to some but is permissible.[101]

[edit] Practices

[edit] Proselytization

Witnesses are perhaps best known for the efforts to spread their beliefs throughout the world. They do this mainly by visiting people from house to house.[102][103] Free home Bible studies are offered to people having questions or interest in their beliefs. They use their publications, such as The Watchtower, to explain their beliefs. Literature is published in many languages through a wide variety of books, magazines and other publications, with some publications being available in as many as 410 languages. Witnesses are instructed to devote as much time as possible in preaching activities.

They believe that their preaching work is a form of humanitarian effort by helping people apply Biblical principles to improve their lives, and that their preaching work gives people hope for the future.[104][105][106] All who qualify are encouraged to participate in the preaching work, but only active ministers are counted as current members.

[edit] Aid work

Aid work after large natural disasters is considered an important part of their work, though secondary to their preaching effort. Large sums of donated money are used in the affected areas to rebuild communities and provide aid. The focus of relief efforts is primarily on helping fellow members and rebuilding Kingdom Halls, but usually, assistance is provided to non-members in need near the area in which they are working.[107][108] Examples of relief work include that provided to Hutu and Tutsi victims during the Rwandan genocide, to Congo refugees[109], and after Hurricane Katrina in the United States of America.[110]

[edit] The Memorial

Their most important annual event is the commemoration of Jesus' death on behalf of mankind, referred to as the Memorial or The Lord's evening meal. It is held after sundown, on the day corresponding to the date of the Hebrew Passover (Nisan 14 on the Hebrew calendar), usually in March or April. It relates to the first full moon, after the spring equinox.[111] The event is open to anyone by invitations given out about a month before.

During the event, unleavened bread and wine, emblems symbolizing Jesus' perfect body and shed blood, are passed to each person in attendance though only those members who profess to be of the 144,000, also called the anointed remnant, partake of the emblems. The other attendees observe without partaking, as the Witnesses believe that those who partake unworthily of the emblems will be judged by Jehovah.

[edit] Demographics

Average Publishers, 1945–2005
Average Publishers, 1945–2005
Main article: Demographics of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, though they do not form a large part of the population of any country. Brazil, Mexico, and the United States are the only countries where the number of active Witness publishers exceeds half a million. As of February 2008, Jehovah's Witnesses have an average of 6.8 million members actively involved in preaching.[112] Since the mid-1990s, the number of peak publishers has increased from 4.5 million to 7.0 million.[113] However, there has been a decline in growth rates, from over 8% per annum in the mid 1970s, to 5% per annum in the mid 1990s, to about 2%–3% per annum since 1999.[114] Growth rates and activity reports tend to show significant geographical variation.[115] The official published membership statistics only include those who have reported preaching activity. 'Inactive' and disfellowshipped members, and any who have either not been involved in preaching or have not submitted reports, are not included in the reported figures but may be reflected in the attendance at the Witnesses' annual Memorial, with over 17 million attending in 2007.[116] In the United States where the religion’s world headquarters is located, Jehovah’s Witnesses have a very low retention rate among individuals raised in the religion. About one-third of children among Jehovah’s Witnesses still identify themselves with the religion as adults.[117]

[edit] Main publications used for teaching

Main article: List of Jehovah's Witnesses Publications
 This section needs sources or references that appear in reliable, third-party publications.
Primary sources and sources affiliated with the subject of the article are generally not sufficient for a Wikipedia article. Please include more appropriate citations from reliable sources, or discuss the issue on the talk page. (September 2008)

The publishing arm of Jehovah's Witnesses, known as the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, engages in extensive publication work, with the production of books, brochures, and other media. The most widely spread are:

  • New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures is a translation of the Bible by the New World Bible Translation Committee, last revised in 1984 in English. It extensively uses the name Jehovah, an English version of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton, also replacing the Greek word for "Lord" some 237 times in the New Testament. It is available in 71 languages. The translators have opted to remain anonymous but others have identified them as being prominent leaders of the movement.[118]
  • The Watchtower has been published continuously since 1879. Until 2007, The Watchtower was published twice a month, on the 1st and a 15th of each month. From 2008 onward, a Study Edition typically including five articles for use at the Watchtower Study, is published on the 15th of each month; a separate edition for use in the public ministry is published on the 1st of each month. It is published in 167 languages.
  • Awake!, a general interest magazine, has a wider scope than the Watchtower, publishing articles on science, nature, and geography, usually with a religious slant. Earlier titles for this magazine were The Golden Age (1919–1937) and Consolation (1937–1946). Until 2005, Awake! was published on the 8th and 22nd of each month; from 2006 onwards, one issue is published each month. It is available in 81 languages.
  • What Does the Bible Really Teach? (2005) The official textbook used to conduct Bible studies.[119]

[edit] Controversy

See main article: Controversies regarding Jehovah's Witnesses

There have been several controversial issues relating to Jehovah's Witnesses, including: doctrinal differences with mainstream Christianity; their bible translation;[120] their views on blood transfusion;[121] their attitude towards other religions;[122] unfulfilled predictions and changes in doctrine;[123] cult aspects;[124] treatment of apostates;[125] and sexual abuse.[126]


[edit] References

  1. ^ Stark et al, Why Jehovah's Witnesses Grow So Rapidly: A Theoretical Application, Journal of Contemporary Religion, Vol. 12, Num. 2, 1997: 133–157
  2. ^ OED definition of "Jehovah's Witness": "a member of a fundamentalist millenary sect..." (emphasis added)
  3. ^ Evans, Allan S.; Riley E. Moynes, Larry Martinello (1973). What man Believes: A study of the World’s Great Faiths. McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 424. ISBN 0-07-077440-4. 
  4. ^ Penton, M.J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press, 7. ISBN 0802079733, 9780802079732. 
  5. ^ "Armenia violates Jehovah's Witnesses' rights-Amnesty", Reuters news agency, January 16, 2008
  6. ^ UNHCR report, May 28, 2008
  7. ^ “Jehovah's Witnesses case heads to B.C. court”, Vancouver Sun, April 1, 2007
  8. ^ Medical emergencies in children of orthodox Jehovah's Witness families: Three recent legal cases, ethical issues and proposals for management”, by J Guicho and, I Mitchell, Paediatrics & Child Health, Canadian Pediatric Society, December 2006.
  9. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Atlanta: Commentary Press, 754. ISBN 0-914675-17-6. 
  10. ^ Holden, A. (2002) Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. (p.18) Routledge.
  11. ^ Online copies of The Watch Tower from 1879–1916 can be viewed by issue at [1] or by article at [2] or in a PDF at [3]. These are taken from the seven-volume Watch Tower Reprints published by the Watch Tower Society in 1920 which reprinted all the issues from 1879–1919.
  12. ^ (1993) Jehovah's Witnesses: Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watchtower, 576. 
  13. ^ Holden, A. (2002) Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. (p.18) Routledge.
  14. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watchtower, 64–65. ;"C.T. Russell's Last Will and Testament". from the December 1, 1916 Watch Tower. This editorial committee was requested to not write, or be connected with, any other publications.
  15. ^ by George D. Chryssides, paper presented at the 2001 International Conference "The Spiritual Supermarket: Religious Pluralism in the 21st Century", organized by INFORM and CESNUR (London, April 19-22, 2001.
  16. ^ a b M James Penton, "Apocalpyse Delayed: The Story of jehovah's Witnesses", University of Toronto Press, 1997, ISBN 0802079733
  17. ^ The Finished Mystery. Watchtower. , published 1917, was called the seventh volume of Studies in the Scriptures. PDF version of The Finished Mystery
  18. ^ A.H. MacMillan. Faith on the March (PDF), 80. Retrieved on 2007-10-25. . The ousted directors disagreed: "...if the directors were not legally elected, neither were the Society's three officers: Rutherford, Pierson, and Van Amburgh. In order to have been chosen officers in January 1917, they would have had to have been legally elected directors. Yet, they had not been, and hence, by Rutherford's own logic, did not hold office legally."—Apocalypse Delayed, M. James Penton, p. 52
  19. ^ by George D. Chryssides, paper presented at the 2001 International Conference "The Spiritual Supermarket: Religious Pluralism in the 21st Century", organized by INFORM and CESNUR (London, April 19-22, 2001.
  20. ^ The Finished Mystery pp. 247–253 468 and 474. See also The Fall of Babylon, published in 1917, which contains extracts from The Finished Mystery.
  21. ^ Trial documents: Rutherford et al. vs. the United States, Application for Executive Clemency – 1919, Reversal by Appeals Court
  22. ^ M.J. Penton. Apocalypse Delayed, 55–56.  (1993) Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watchtower, 647–654.  Rutherford gives his defense against the charges in Souvenir Report of the Bible Student's Convention (1919) (PDF), Watchtower, 62–63.  and in the tract The Case of the IBSA
  23. ^ "Distress of Nations: Cause, Warning, Remedy", The Golden Age: 712–718, 1920, <http://www.a2z.org/wtarchive/docs/1920_Golden_Age.pdf> 
  24. ^ (1993) Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watchtower, 72-77. 
  25. ^ (1958) Your Will Be Done on Earth. Watchtower, 337. 
  26. ^ (1959) Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose. Watchtower, 313. 
  27. ^ M. James Penton. Apocalypse Delayed—The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses, 61. 
  28. ^ (1946) When Pastor Russell Died (PDF), Dawn Bible Students Association, 6–16.  Attendance at the annual Memorial (statistics were published each year in the Watch Tower) shows the growth in the period before 1925. 1919: 17,961, 1922: 32,661, 1923: 42,000, 1924: 62,696, 1925: 90,434. 1926 marked the first decrease: 89,278. There are no published statistics from 1929–1934. In 1935, Memorial attendance was 63,146.Watchtower, August 15, 1996, pp. 31 
  29. ^ Penton, M.J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press, 62. ISBN 0802079733, 9780802079732. 
  30. ^ (1921) The Harp of God, 231–236.  affirms that "the Lord's second presence dates from 1874." Watchtower, Watchtower, 1922, pp. 71  and (1930) Prophecy, 65–66.  reiterated this position. The eschatological changes during this period are documented in Thomas Daniels. Historical Idealism and Jehovah's Witnesses (PDF), 3–37. Retrieved on 2006-02-01. 
  31. ^ Proclaimers, p. 214. June 15, 1938 Watchtower
  32. ^ (1993) Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watchtower, 84-85. 
  33. ^ See article on the persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses from the "United States Holocaust Memorial Museum". Retrieved on February 22, 2005.
  34. ^ Hans Hesse (2001). Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi Regime, 10. 
  35. ^ American Civil Liberties Union (1941). The Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses (PDF), 1–24.  Barbara Grizzuti Harrison (1978). Visions of Glory, 185, 281.  Jayne Persian (December 2005). "The Banning of Jehovah's Witnesses in Australia in 1941" (PDF). Adelaide Company of Jehovah's Witnesses, Inc. v. The Commonwealth of Australia
  36. ^ Flynn Patrick J, Writing Their Faith into the Law of the Land: Jehovah's Witnesses, the Supreme Court and the Battle for the Meaning of the Free Exercise Clause, 1939–1945, Texas Journal on Civil Liberties and Civil Rights, December 1, 2004
  37. ^ At a trial in Scotland, Fred Franz was asked: "Were you yourself responsible for the translation of the Old Testament?" He replied: "I cannot answer that question." Pursuer's Proof: Lord Strachan vs. Douglas Walsh, p. 92.
  38. ^ In 1988, the latter was replaced by the two-volume set Insight on the Scriptures.
  39. ^ (1993) Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watchtower, 106. 
  40. ^ The year 1975 was first mentioned in 1966. See Sniecinski, Roman M. (1966), "How Much Longer Will It Be?", 'Awake!' 104: 17–20, doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3 
  41. ^ See 1975: 'THE APPROPRIATE TIME FOR GOD TO ACT'. Page 14 of the October 8, 1968 Awake! demonstrates the disclaimer that was made at the time: "Does this mean that the above evidence positively points to 1975 as the complete end of this system of things? Since the Bible does not specifically state this, no man can say...If the 1970s should see intervention by Jehovah God to bring an end to a corrupt world drifting toward ultimate disintegration, that should surely not surprise us."
  42. ^ "Witnessing the End", Time, 1969, <http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,901074–1,00.html>. Retrieved on 12 September 2006 
  43. ^ Raymond Franz. "1975—The Appropriate Time for God to Act", Crisis of Conscience (PDF), 237–253. Retrieved on 2006-07-27. This drop in membership has been variously analyzed. Richard Singelenberg ("The '1975'-prophecy and its impact among Dutch Jehovah's Witnesses") in Sociological Analysis 50(1)1989, pp 23–40 notes a nine per cent drop in total publishers (door-to-door preachers) and a 38 per cent drop in pioneers (full-time preachers) in the Netherlands. Stark and Iannoccone have analyzed the impact on US Witnesses. The Journal of Contemporary Religion, 1997, pp. 142–143, <http://www.geocities.com/rogueactivex/JWGrow-O.pdf>  The January 30, 1982 Los Angeles Times ("Defectors Feel 'Witness' Wrath: Critics say Baptism Rise Gives False Picture of Growth" by John Dart, p. B4) cited statistics showing a net increase of publishers worldwide from 1971–1981 of 737,241, while baptisms totaled 1.71 million for the same period.
  44. ^ The Watchtower, March 15, 1980, p.17 "With the appearance of the book Life Everlasting—in Freedom of the Sons of God, ... considerable expectation was aroused regarding the year 1975. ... there were other statements published that implied that such realization of hopes by that year was more of a probability than a mere possibility. It is to be regretted that these latter statements apparently overshadowed the cautionary ones and contributed to a buildup of the expectation already initiated. ... persons having to do with the publication of the information ... contributed to the buildup of hopes centered on that date."
  45. ^ 1977 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, p. 258
  46. ^ Love, C. (2005) 20 Questions Jehovah's Witnesses Cannot Answer, (p.22). Xulon Press.
  47. ^ Holden, A. (2002) Cavorting With the Devil: Jehovah’s Witnesses Who Abandon Their Faith, (Endnote [i]). Published by the Department of Sociology, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YL, UK at www.lancs.ac.uk/fass/sociology/papers/holden-cavorting-with-the-devil.pdf
  48. ^ The Bible Answers Vital Questions of Our Day (November 15, 1999) The Watchtower. The Watchtower Bible and Tract Society.
  49. ^ (1988) Insight on the Scriptures Vol. 2, 1019. 
  50. ^ Jesus Christ—God’s Beloved Son The Watchtower June 1 1988 p. 13 par. 17
  51. ^ Holden, A. (2002) Jehovah's Witnesses: portrait of a contemporary movement, (p.180). Routledge.
  52. ^ By comparison, KJV reads "quickened by the Spirit."
  53. ^ ""His Vital Place in God's Purpose" and "Chief Agent of life"", Insight on the Scriptures Vol. e2. Watchtower, 60–61. 
  54. ^ Angels: how they affect us (2006) The Watchtower, January 15. Watchtower Bible and Tract Society
    "The angel foremost in power and authority is Michael the archangel, or Jesus Christ. (1 Thessalonians 4:16; Jude 9) Seraphs, cherubs, and other angels are under him."
  55. ^ Russell, C.T. (1877) Three Worlds and the Harvest of this World, (p.107) Published by N.H. Barbour & C.T. Russell: Rochester, NY.
    "There is not the slightest scriptural ground to oppose the fact that Christ is again present, and that Michael, his assistant, has also again returned to earth."
  56. ^ Holden, A. (2002) Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement, (p.84). Routledge.
  57. ^ Beckford, (1975) in Holden, A. (2002) Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement, (p.60). Routledge. "Jehovah’s witness converts certainly experience no sudden conviction that they have miraculously received God’s grace nor that they attained an immediate assurance of salvation. In fact, very few Witnesses can isolate a particular moment in time as a decisive turning point in their religious or spiritual development: certainly none could remember having an overwhelming religious experience."
  58. ^ Sniecinski, Roman M. (1989), "Remaining Organized for Survival Into the Millennium", Watchtower 104: 19, doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3, "Only Jehovah's Witnesses, those of the anointed remnant and the "great crowd", as a united organization under the protection of the Supreme Organizer, have Scriptural hope of surviving the impending end of this doomed system now dominated by Satan the Devil. When will that day of judgment come? The bible states in several scriptures that only God himself knows when he will execute his judgment. For an example, see Mathew 24:36–39, Mark 13:23,33," 
  59. ^ Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses (1975) in Gruss, (2001) Jehovah's Witnesses. Xulon Press.
  60. ^ The Watchtower (1945) 1 September (p. 259) in Gruss, E. (2001) Jehovah's Witnesses. Xulon Press.
  61. ^ Holden, A. (2002) Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement Routledge.
  62. ^ (2005) What Does the Bible Really Teach?. Watchtower, 33–36. .
  63. ^ "Do they believe that they are the only ones who will be saved?", Jehovah's Witnesses—Who Are They? What Do They Believe?
  64. ^ "??", Watchtower: p. 20 par. 18, 8/15/98, "18 ... 'How will babies and small children be judged? Might it be that a large number of people will not yet have been reached with the good news when Armageddon arrives? One comforting answer to such questions can be found at Matthew 24:14. What about the mentally ill? ... at present we may not know how Jehovah will resolve these issues. He will do so, however, in a righteous and merciful way." 
  65. ^ Sniecinski, Roman M. (1998), "Strengthening Our Confidence in God's Righteousness", Watchtower 104: 20, doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3 
  66. ^ Sniecinski, Roman M. (1998), ""Death Is to Be Brought to Nothing"", Watchtower 104: 19–24, doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3 
  67. ^ What Does The Bible Really Teach? p. 214 par. 3 Judgment Day—What Is It? "To live forever, both Armageddon survivors and resurrected ones will have to obey God's commandments, including whatever new requirements Jehovah might reveal during the thousand years. Thus, individuals will be judged on the basis of what they do during Judgment Day"
  68. ^ "Is There LIFE After Death?", The Watchtower, 2005, <http://www.watchtower.org/e/20020715/article_02.htm>. Retrieved on 14 September 2008 
  69. ^ Sniecinski, Roman M. (1993), "Hell—Eternal Torture or Common Grave?", The Watchtower 104: 6, doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3 
  70. ^ (1988) Insight on the Scriptures Vol. 2, 189. 
  71. ^ "The...Scriptures show 'soul' to be a person, an animal, or the life that a person or an animal enjoys." (1988) Insight on the Scriptures Vol. 2, 1004. 
  72. ^ Holden, A. (2002) Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement (p.23) Routledge.
    "The exceptions [to literal interpretation] are the recorded visions in the Books of Daniel and Revelation."
  73. ^ They believe the Bible also uses symbolism, parable, figures of speech, and poeticism. A Book for All People (2005) Watchtower Bible and Tract Society.
  74. ^ Watchtower 10/151974 p. 629 "How Are Jehovah's Witnesses Different?" | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania
  75. ^ Watchtower 10/15 1977. 618 par. 8 | "Obedience to the Good News a Way of Life" | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania
  76. ^ Watchtower 9/1 1994. 6 | "Science, Religion, and the Search for Truth" | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania
  77. ^ Holden, A. (2002) Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement>. (p.61) Routledge.
  78. ^ Holden, A. (2007) "True to thee 'til death: why Jehovah's Witnesses refuse blood" The Journal, 20 November. The Edinburgh Journal Ltd.
  79. ^ Watchtower, October 1, 1967, pages 587, 590, as cited by R. Franz, “In Search of Christian Freedom, chapter 4.
  80. ^ Chryssides, G.D. (1999) Exploring New Religions, (p.103). Continuum International Publishing Group
  81. ^ (1995) "Why Living a Godly Life Brings Happiness", Knowledge that Leads to Everlasting Life. Watchtower, 118. 
  82. ^ (1995) Knowledge That Leads to Everlasting Life. Watchtower, 120. 
  83. ^ "The Bible's Viewpoint What Does It Mean to Be the Head of the House?", Awake!: 26, 2004 
  84. ^ Watchtower 2/1/52 p. 69 Is Interfaith God's Way?"JEHOVAH is a God of truth. He does not compromise with error"
  85. ^ Awake! 11/22/89 p. 22 "this willingness to compromise has become more pronounced because of a growing acceptance of the idea that all "Christian" religions have an inherent God-given unity."
  86. ^ What Does The Bible Really Teach? chap. 15 p. 145 par. 3 Worship That God Approves | "3 ... Many people believe that all religions are pleasing to God, but the Bible does not teach that. It is not even enough just to claim to be a Christian. Jesus said: "Not everyone saying to me, 'Lord, Lord,' will enter into the kingdom of the heavens, but the one doing the will of my Father who is in the heavens will." "
  87. ^ Watchtower 12/15/53 pp. 741–742 Should the Religions Unite? "While these councils may provide a strong political lobby, or aid in mission work, they have no unity of doctrine, no message for the world, no direction to the kingdom of God as earth's only hope, no counsel for the Christian conscience in the present crisis. They are merely "United Nations" of religions, 'agencies of cooperation' between widely divided denominations, but are not organizations that could bring their members to a unity of correct belief."
  88. ^ http://www.conservapedia.com/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses
  89. ^ http://www.conservapedia.com/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses
  90. ^ ""Salvation Belongs to Jehovah"", Watchtower: 21, 2002 
  91. ^ "Watchtower" 11/15/00 p. 15 par. 18 Christians Find Happiness in Serving "There are many people who claim to worship God, but their worship is really directed to the gods of nationalism, tribalism, wealth, self, or some other deity"
  92. ^ "Watchtower" 2/15/67 p. 115 par. 15 "(Dan. 2:44) "Thus the nationalistic governments on which the various religious systems depend so heavily for support are destined to be crushed by God's heavenly kingdom."
  93. ^ Watchtower 11/1/90 p. 24 par. 5 " … what if part of the tax money is used to finance something we disagree with, such as free abortions, blood banks, or programs that conflict with our neutral views? We still pay all our taxes. It is the authority that must take responsibility for how it uses the tax money."
  94. ^ "God and Caesar", Watchtower: 9, 1996 
  95. ^ Watchtower 10/1/84 p. 17 par. 10
  96. ^ Penton, M.J. (1997) Apocalypse Delayed (p. i)
  97. ^ Muramoto, O. (January 6, 2001), "Bioethical aspects of the recent changes in the policy of refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses", BMJ 322: 37–39, doi:10.1136/bmj.322.7277.37, PMID 11141155, <http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1119307> 
  98. ^ Bowman, R.M, Beisner, E.C., Ehrenborg, Rev. T. (1995) Jehovah's Witnesses, (p. 13). Zondervan.
  99. ^ The Watchtower, June 15, 2000 p. 30. Sniesinski et al (2007), "Coagulopathy After Cardiopulmonary Bypass in Jehovah's Witness Patients: Management of Two Cases Using Fractionated Components and Factor VIIa" (PDF), Anesthesia & Analgesia 104: 763, doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3, <http://www.freeminds.org/doctrine/sniecinski_analgesia2.pdf> 
  100. ^ Durable Power of Attorney form, published by Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, January 2001 p. 1, "I accept all fractions derived from any primary component of blood." Examples of permitted fractions are: Interferon, Immune Serum Globulins and Factor VIII; preparations made from Hemoglobin such as PolyHeme and Hemopure. Examples of permitted procedures involving the medical use of one's own blood include: Cell Salvage, Hemodilution, Heart-Lung Machine, Dialysis, Epidural Blood Patch, Plasmapheresis, Labeling or Tagging of Blood and Platelet Gel (Autologous). See November 2006 Our Kingdom Ministry, pp. 5–6
  101. ^ Awake! August 2006 box on P. 11
  102. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses: Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, chap. 25 pg. 570" –1993| "House-to-House Preaching —An Identifying Mark" | . © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania
  103. ^ The Watchtower – May 15, 1981, p. 17. | "Showing Lifesaving Neighbor Love" | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania
  104. ^ The Watchtower – January 15, 1987, p. 6. | "Social Ministry—How It Affects People" | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania
  105. ^ The Watchtower – July 15, 1971, p. 426. | "How the True Church Helps" | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania "The most important thing for you, for every individual—including the poor and afflicted—is to enter into a right relationship with God and Christ. To that end the Christian witnesses of Jehovah are sent into the world, not with material bread, which would be only a temporary help, but with spiritual food, the word of life. These words from God will open the way to peace with Him, and at the same time the way to eternal life in God's new order, when there will be plenty for all."
  106. ^ Watchtower, November 1, 1966, pp. 647 
  107. ^ Awake! 6/8/89 p. 30 From Our Readers "By no means do Jehovah's Witnesses ignore the plight of others when disasters occur. Previous articles have demonstrated how willing Jehovah's Witnesses are to assist their neighbors during such times. See, for example, the article entitled "The Levee Has Broken!" (October 8, 1986) We thus endeavor to "work what is good toward all, but especially toward those related to us in the faith." (Galatians 6:10)
  108. ^ Awake! 6/06 p. 19 Heeding the Warnings Made a Difference "This group cares for the Louisiana area, which took the brunt of Hurricane Katrina. Of the 2,700 homes of Witnesses needing repair there, work on 1,119 had been completed by the middle of February, so a huge task was still facing that relief committee. Again, neighbors and families with dire need were also helped."
  109. ^ Sniecinski, Roman M. (2007), "Christianity in Action: Amid Turmoil", Watchtower (Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania) 104: 763, doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3, <http://www.watchtower.org/library/w/1998/1/15/>. Retrieved on 4 December 2005, "Since 1994, Jehovah's Witnesses in Europe alone have sent more than 190 tons of food, clothing, medicine, and other relief supplies to the Great Lakes region of Africa to fellow Jehovah's Witnesses" 
  110. ^ Awake!, 2006, pp. 14–19 
  111. ^ "What Does the Bible Really Teach?", Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania (2005), p. 206.
  112. ^ To be counted, an individual must be approved as a minister and report at least 15 minutes in the ministry. In 2007, these reports indicated a total of over 1.3 billion hours.
  113. ^ Yearbooks of Jehovah's Witnesses, 1996–2008.
  114. ^ Facts about truth and Jehovah's Witnesses
  115. ^ Statistics
  116. ^ If Witnesses counted members like other churches, the number of members (1995 data) would then be over 15 million. (See study by Rodney Stark on Jehovah's Witness growth at http://www.geocities.com/rogueactivex/JWGrow-O.pdf and article comparing Mormon and other churches' growth, including the Witnesses, at http://www.sltrib.com/ci_2890645).
  117. ^ U.S.Religious Landscape Survey Religious Affiliation: Diverse and Dynamic, the Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, February 2008, p. 9, 30
  118. ^ (2004) Crisis of Conscience, 4th, Commentary Press, 56. 0–914675–23–0. Harrison. Visions of Glory, 231. 
  119. ^ "Our Kingdom Ministry 1/06 p. 1 "The Bible Teach Book—Our Primary Bible Study Aid" … "publishers are encouraged to begin using it immediately to start and conduct Bible studies."
  120. ^ Robert M. Bowman Jr, Understanding Jehovah's Witnesses, (Grand Rapids MI: Baker Book House, 1992); Ankerberg, John and John Weldon, 2003, The New World Translation of the Jehovah's Witnesses, accessible from this site, which quotes a number of scholars regarding theological bias of the New World Translation; Samuel Hass stated: "While this work indicates a great deal of effort and thought as well as considerable scholarship, it is to be regretted that religious bias was allowed to colour many passages." Journal of Biblical Literature, December 1955, p. 283.
  121. ^ Associated Jehovah's Witnesses for Reform on Blood
  122. ^ Penton, James (1997). Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3.
  123. ^ Waldeck, Val Jehovah's Witnesses: What do they believe?. Pilgrim Publications SA. ISBN 1-920092-08-0; Buttrey, John M (2004). Let No One Mislead You. iUniverse. ISBN 0-595-30710-8.
  124. ^ Kane, H.J. (1986) in Bjork, D.E. (1997) Unfamiliar Paths: The Challenge of Recognizing the Work of Christ in Strange Clothing : a Case Study from France, (p.66) William Carey Library.
    "They regard [evangelical missionaries] as a cult, just as we regard the Mormons, the Moonies, and the Jehovah’s Witnesses."
  125. ^ In Search Of Christian Freedom by Raymond Franz, 2002, and In Search of Christian Freedom, pp.374–390 'The Misuse of Disfellowshipping', by Raymond Franz
  126. ^ Robinson, B.A (2005). "Jehovah's Witnesses (WTS) Handling of Child Sexual Abuse Cases", Religious Tolerance.org Retrieved Mar 3, 2006.

[edit] Further reading

[edit] Books

  • Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses by M. James Penton. Penton, professor emeritus of history at University of Lethbridge and a former member of the religion, examines the history of Jehovah's Witnesses, and their doctrines. Read selections from: Apocalypse Delayed: the Story of Jehovah's Witnesses University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3 (Canada, 1998) (Google book search)
  • Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement by Andrew Holden. An academic study on the sociological aspects of Jehovah's Witnesses phenomenon. Publisher: Routledge; 1st edition 2002, ISBN 978–0415266109. 224 pages.
  • Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom (1993) by Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Official history of the development of the beliefs, practices, and organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses. 750 pages.
  • A People for His Name: A History of Jehovah's Witnesses and an Evaluation by Tony Wills, (2006) 2nd edition. (The first edition was published under the pseudonym Timothy White.) He explores the Witnesses' doctrinal growth and shifts and notes schisms from the main body. 300 pages. ISBN 978–1-4303–0100–4 Selections from Google Books
  • Controversies regarding Jehovah's Witnesses#Books Critical of Jehovah's Witnesses

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

[edit] Official sites

[edit] Other sites

  • Jehovah's Witnesses United – A collection of information supporting the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society's teachings and its New World Translation bible.

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