United States invasion of Panama

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Invasion of Panama
Part of the Cold War

Rangers from Charlie Company, 3rd Battalion, 75th Ranger Regiment prepare to take La Comandancia in the El Chorrillo neighborhood of Panama City, December 1989.
Date December 20, 1989 – January 31, 1990
Location Panama
Result Allied victory, deposition of Noriega's dictatorship.
Belligerents
Flag of Panama Panama Flag of the United States United States
Panamanian Civilian Crusade
Panameñista Party
Commanders
Flag of Panama Manuel Noriega Flag of the United States Maxwell R. Thurman
Flag of the United States George H. W. Bush
Strength
16,000+ 27,684+
Casualties and losses
100-1,000 killed 24 killed,
325 wounded
300-4,000 civilians killed

The United States invasion of Panama, codenamed Operation Just Cause, was the invasion of Panama by the United States in December 1989, during the administration of U.S. President George H. W. Bush, and ten years before the Panama Canal was transferred from control of the United States, back to Panama. During the invasion, de facto Panamanian leader, general, and dictator Manuel Noriega was deposed.

Contents

[edit] Background

The Torrijos-Carter Treaties, which set in motion the process of handing the Panama Canal over to Panamanian control, was signed by President of the United States Jimmy Carter and Omar Torrijos of Panama on September 7, 1977. U.S. relations with Noriega spanned decades from 1959 to the early 1980s, when Noriega served as a U.S. intelligence asset and was on the Central Intelligence Agency's payroll. Noriega's relations with George H. W. Bush may have begun in the 1970s, when Bush was head of the CIA.[1] Noriega had worked to advance U.S. interests in Central America, notably in sabotaging the forces of the communist government in Nicaragua, the Sandinistas, and the FMLN revolutionaries in El Salvador, receiving upwards of $100,000 for his efforts.[2] ; and as he worked with the Drug Enforcement Administration to restrict illegal drug shipments, he was known to work with the drug dealers themselves simultaneously.[1]

During the 1980s, U.S. President Ronald Reagan negotiated with General Noriega, requesting that the Panamanian leader peacefully step down, while pressuring him with several drug-related indictments in U.S. courts. Later negotiations involved dropping the drug-trafficking indictments. In March of 1989, an attempted coup against the government of Panama was resisted by Noriega's forces. In May '89, during the national elections, an alliance of parties opposed to the military dictatorship of Manuel Noriega counted results from the country's election precincts before they were sent to the district centers. Their tally showed their candidate, Guillermo Endara defeating Carlos Duque, candidate of a pro-Noriega coalition, by a nearly 3-to-1 margin. Endara was beaten up by Noriega supporters the next day.[1] Noriega declared the election null and maintained power by force, making him unpopular among Panamanians. Noriega's government insisted that they won the presidential election and irregularities had been on the part of U.S.-backed candidates from opposition parties.[3] Bush called on Noriega to honor the will of the Panamanian people.[1]

A US Marine Corps LAV-25 in Panama
A US Marine Corps LAV-25 in Panama

The Panamanian Defense Force (PDF), turning its back on Noriega, offered to hand him over to the US; no action was taken. In October 1989, Noriega foiled a second coup attempt led by major Moisés Giroldi. Pressure mounted on Bush, as the media labeled him a "wimp" for failing to aid Panama amidst his rhetoric.[1][4] Bush declared that the U.S. would not negotiate with a known drug-trafficker and denied having any knowledge of Noriega's involvement with the drug trade prior to his indictment.[5] President Bush's allegations that forces under Noriega's command had shot and killed an unarmed American serviceman, wounded another, arrested and brutally beat a third American serviceman and then brutally interrogated his wife, threatening her with sexual abuse, were cited in the United Nations Security Council as sufficient grounds for invasion to be an act of self-defense within Article 51 of the UN charter.[6]

In the December 16 incident that led to the killing of American Marine officer Lt. Robert Paz, four U.S. personnel were stopped at a roadblock outside PDF headquarters in the El Chorrillo neighborhood of Panama City. The United States Department of Defense claimed that the servicemen were unarmed and in a private vehicle and that they attempted to flee the scene only after their vehicle was surrounded by a crowd of civilians and PDF troops. The PDF claimed the Americans were armed and on a reconnaissance mission.[7] It was also reported by the Los Angeles Times[8] that "according to American military and civilian sources" the officer killed was a member of the "Hard Chargers", a group whose goal was to agitate members of the PDF. It was also reported that the group's "tactics were well known by ranking U.S. officers" who were frustrated by "Panamanian provocations committed under dictator Manuel A. Noriega", although the group was not officially sanctioned by the military. The Pentagon later denied that such a group ever existed.[9] According to an official U. S. military report "witnesses to the incident, a U.S. naval officer and his wife were assaulted by Panamanian Defense Force soldiers while in police custody".[10]

The official United States justification for the invasion was articulated by President George H. W. Bush on the morning of December 20, a few hours after the start of the operation. Bush listed four reasons for the invasion:[11]

  • Safeguarding the lives of U.S. citizens in Panama. In his statement, Bush claimed that Noriega had declared that a state of war existed between the United States and Panama and that he also threatened the lives of the approximately 35,000 US citizens living there. There had been numerous clashes between U.S. and Panamanian forces; one US Marine had been killed a few days earlier and several incidents of harassment of US citizens had taken place.
  • Defending democracy and human rights in Panama.
  • Combating drug trafficking. Panama had become a center for drug money laundering and a transit point for drug trafficking to the United States and Europe.
  • Protecting the integrity of the Torrijos-Carter Treaties. Members of Congress and others in the U.S. political establishment claimed that Noriega threatened the neutrality of the Panama Canal and that the United States had the right under the treaties to intervene militarily to protect the Panama canal.

In regard to one of the reasons set forth by the United States to justify the invasion, namely the Panamanian legislature's declaration of a state of war between the United States and Panama, Noriega insists[12] that this statement referred to a state of war directed by the U.S.

against Panama, in the form of what he claimed were harsh economic sanctions and constant, provocative military maneuvers (Operations Purple Storm

and Sand Flea)[13] that were prohibited by the Torrijos-Carter Treaties.
The U.S. had turned a blind-eye to Noriega's involvement since the 1970s. Noriega was then singled out for direct involvement in these drug

trafficking operations.
Panama, before the contended 'declaration of war' against the US, had instigated no hostile actions against any other country.

[edit] Timeline

September 1987 - Senate passes resolution urging Panama to reestablish a civilian government. Panama protests alleged U.S. violations of the Canal Treaty.
November 1987: Senate resolution cuts military and economic aid to Panama. Panamanians adopt resolution restricting U.S. military presence.
February 1988: Noriega indicted on drug-related charges. U.S. forces begin planning contingency operations in Panama (OPLAN BLUE SPOON).

A US Army M-113 in Panama
A US Army M-113 in Panama

March 1988

  • 14th March: First of four deployments of U.S. forces begins providing additional security to U.S. installations.
  • 16th March: PDF officers attempt a coup against Noriega.

April 1988

  • 5th April: Additional U.S. forces deployed to provide security.
  • 9th April: Joint Task Force Panama activated.

May 1989

  • 7th May: Civilian elections are held; opposition alliance tally shows their candidate, Guillermo Endara, beating Noriega's candidate, Carlos Duque, by a 3 to 1 margin. The election is declared invalid two days later by Noriega.
  • 11th May: President Bush orders 1,900 additional combat troops to Panama (Operation NIMROD DANCER).
  • 22nd May: Convoys conducted to assert U.S. freedom of movement. Additional transport units travelled from bases in the territorial US to bases in Panama, and back, for this express purpose.

Jun, Jul, Aug, Sep 89

  • U.S. begins conducting joint training/freedom of movement exercises (SAND FLEAS and PURPLE STORMS). Additional transport units continued from this date to travel repeatedly from bases in the territorial US to bases in Panama, and back, for this express purpose.

Oct 89

  • 3rd Oct: Noriega defeats second coup attempt.

Dec 89

  • 15th Dec: Noriega refers to himself as leader of Panama and mentions a state of war with the U.S.
  • 16th Dec: Marine lieutenant shot and killed by PDF. Navy lieutenant and wife detained and assaulted by PDF.
  • 17th Dec: NCA directs execution of Operation JUST CAUSE.
  • 18th Dec: Army lieutenant shoots PDF sergeant. Joint Task Force South (JTFSO) advance party deploys. JCS designates D-Day/H-Hour as 200100R Dec 89.
  • 19th Dec: U.S. forces alerted, marshaled and launched.

D-Day 20 Dec 89: Invasion begins. The operation was conducted as a campaign with limited military objectives. JTFSO objectives in PLAN 90-2 were to: Protect U.S. lives and key sites and facilities, capture and deliver Noriega to competent authority, neutralize PDF forces, neutralize PDF command and control, support establishment of a U.S.-recognized government in Panama, and restructure the PDF. Major operations detailed elsewhere continued to the 24th of Dec.
D-Day + 14, 3 Jan 90 - Noriega surrenders to U.S. forces.
D-Day + 23, 12 Jan 90 - Operation JUST CAUSE ends and PROMOTE LIBERTY begins.
Information in this section[14]

[edit] Local and international reactions

The Panamanian people overwhelmingly supported the action.[15] According to one poll, 92% of Panamanian adults supported the U.S. incursion, and 76% wished that U.S. forces had invaded in October during the coup.[15] 74% of Americans polled approved the action.[15]

On December 22 the Organization of American States passed a resolution deploring the invasion and calling for withdrawal of U.S. troops, in addition to a separate resolution condemning the violation of the diplomatic status of the Nicaraguan Embassy in Panama by US Special Forces who had entered the building.[16] At the UN Security Council, after discussing the issue over several days, a draft resolution demanding the immediate withdrawal of United States forces from Panama[17] was vetoed on 23 December by three of the permanent members of the Security Council,[18] France, United Kingdom, and the United States who cited its right of self-defense of 35,000 Americans present on the Panama Canal.[19] On 29 December, the General Assembly of the United Nations voted 75–20 with 40 abstentions to condemn the invasion as a "flagrant violation of international law."[20]

Peru recalled its ambassador in protest of the invasion.

The Washington Post disclosed several rulings of the Office of Legal Counsel, issued shortly before the invasion, in regards to the U.S. armed forces being charged with making an arrest abroad. One ruling Interpreted the Executive Order against Assassination of Foreign Leaders, which prohibits the intentional killing of foreign leaders as suggesting that accidental killings would be acceptable foreign policy. Another ruling concludes that the Posse Comitatus Act of 1878, which prohibits the armed forces from making arrests without Congressional authorization, is effective only within the boundaries of the US, such that the military could be used as a police force abroad — for example, in Panama, to enforce a federal court warrant against Noriega.[21]

[edit] Aftermath

Guillermo Endara, in hiding in the Panama Canal Zone, was sworn in as president by a judge on the night preceding the invasion. In later years, he staged a hunger strike, calling attention to the poverty and homelessness left in the wake of both the Noriega years and destruction caused by the U.S. invasion[22] For nearly two weeks after the invasion, there was widespread looting and lawlessness, a contingency which the United States military indicated it had not anticipated.[citation needed] This looting inflicted catastrophic losses on many Panamanian businesses, some of which took several years to recover. On July 19, 1990, a group of 60 companies based in Panama filed a lawsuit against the United States Government in Federal District Court in New York City alleging that the U.S. action against Panama was "done in a tortious, careless and negligent manner with disregard for the property of innocent Panamanian residents". Most of the businesses had insurance, but the insurers either went bankrupt or refused to pay, claiming acts of war are not covered.[23]

About 20,000 people lost their homes and became refugees from the invasion. About 2,700 families that were displaced by the Chorrillo fire were each given $6,500 by the United States to build a new house or apartment in selected areas in or near the city. However, numerous problems were reported with the new constructions just two years after the invasion.[24]

The government of Guillermo Endara designated the first anniversary of the U.S. invasion a "national day of reflection". On that day hundreds of Panamanians marked the day with a "black march" through the streets of this capital to denounce the U.S. invasion and Endara's economic policies. Protesters echoed claims that 3,000 people were killed as a result of U.S. military action.Since Noriega's ouster, Panama has had three presidential elections, with candidates from opposing parties succeeding each other in the Palacio de las Garzas. Panama's press, however, is still subject to numerous restrictions.[25] On 10 February 1990, the Endara government abolished Panama's military and reformed the security apparatus by creating the Panamanian Public Forces. In 1994, a constitutional amendment permanently abolished the military of Panama. Concurrent with a severe recession in Latin America throughout the 1990s, Panama's GDP recovered by 1993, but very high unemployment remained a serious problem.

Noriega was brought to the US to await trial. One of the charges brought against him was dropped when what had been widely reported as 50 kilograms of cocaine, was revealed to be tamales. [26]

[edit] Major operations and U.S. units involved

[edit] Operations

All 27 objectives related to the Panamanian Defense Force were completed on D-Day: December 20, 1989; as initial forces moved to new objectives,

follow-on forces from 7th Inf Div (L) moved into the western areas of Panama and into Panama City.

D-Day + 1, 21 Dec 89 -

  • JCS directs execution of PLAN BLIND LOGIC.
  • Panama Canal reopened for daylight operations.
  • Refugee situation becomes critical.
  • TF Bayonet begins CMO in Panama City.
  • Marriott Hotel secured and hostages evacuated.

D-Day + 2, 22 Dec 89 -

  • FPP established.
  • CMO and stability operations become primary focus.
  • 2d Bde, 7th Inf Div (L), deploys to Rio Hato.
  • 1st Bde, 7th Inf Div (L), alerted for deployment.

D-Day + 3, 23 Dec 89 -

  • International airport reopened.
  • 2d Bde, 7th Inf Div (L) and SF elements begin ops in west.
  • 96th CA Bn assumes responsibility for DC Camp from USARSO.
  • 1st Bde 7th Inf Div (L) closes in Panama.

D-Day + 4, 24 Dec 89 -

  • Noriega enters Papal Nunciatura.
  • Money for Weapons program initiated.
  • Combined U.S./FPP patrols begin.

D-Day + 5, 25 Dec 89 -

  • Rangers secure David.
  • Operations in western Panama continue successfully.

D-Day + 14, 3 Jan 90 - Noriega surrenders to U.S. forces. D-Day + 23, 12 Jan 90 - Operation JUST CAUSE ends and PROMOTE LIBERTY begins.
Above information[27]

[edit] Units involved in Operation Just Cause

  • 27th Infantry Regiment
  • 4th Battalion, 17th Infantry Regiment
  • 6th Battalion, 8th Field Artillery Regiment
  • B Battery, 7th Battalion, 15th Field Artillery Regiment
  • B Battery, 2-62d ADA
  • 1st Battalion, 123rd Aviation Regiment
  • 9th Infantry Regiment

[edit] Related operations


[edit] See also

[edit] Notes and references

  1. ^ a b c d e Jones, Howard. Crucible of Power: A History of U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1897. 2001, page 494.
  2. ^ Frederick Kempe, Divorcing the Dictator (New York, Putnam, 1990), ppg 26-30, 162
  3. ^ a report by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights concluded that numerous human rights violations occurred in Panama during Noriega's government [[Report on the situation of human rights in Panama. November 9, 1989]].
  4. ^ "THE WIMP FACTOR" American Heritage Magazine, November 1989.
  5. ^ "The Noriega Challenge to George Bush’s Credibility and the 1989 Invasion of Panama". 2000.
  6. ^ United Nations Security Council Verbatim Report meeting 2899 page 24, Mr Pickering United States of America on 20 December 1989 (retrieved 2008-08-28)
  7. ^ Facts On File World News Digest, December 22, 1989, "U.S. Forces Invade Panama, Seize Wide Control; Noriega Eludes Capture." FACTS.com [1].
  8. ^ Los Angeles Times, 'December 22, 1990, "Some Blame Rogue Band of Marines for Picking Fight, Spurring Panama Invasion", Kenneth Freed.
  9. ^ Washington Post in The Panama Deception article, accessed 29th September 2008.
  10. ^ www.globalsecurity.org, Joint History Office, Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Operation Just Cause, p 2, Retrieved on 10 February 2007
  11. ^ New York Times, December 21, 1989, "A Transcript of President Bush's Address on the Decision to Use Force".
  12. ^ Noriega, Manuel and Eisner, Peter. America's Prisoner — The Memoirs of Manuel Noriega. Random House, 1997.
  13. ^ Operation Just Cause Historical Summary at GlobalSecurity.Org
  14. ^ [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1990/90-9/9091his.htm Operation Just Cause Historical Summary] at GlobalSecurity.Org
  15. ^ a b c Pastor, Robert A. Exiting the Whirlpool: U.S. Foreign Policy Toward Latin America and the Caribbean. 2001, page 96.
  16. ^ New York Times, December 21, 1989, "U.S. Denounced by Nations Touchy About Intervention", James Brooke.
  17. ^ United Nations Security Council Draft Resolution S-21048 on 22 December 1989 (retrieved 2007-09-13)
  18. ^ United Nations Security Council Verbatim Report meeting 2902 page 15 on 23 December 1989 (retrieved 2007-09-13)
  19. ^ United Nations Security Council Verbatim Report meeting 2902 page 10 on 22 December 1989 (retrieved 2007-09-13)
  20. ^ International Development Research Centre, "The Responsibility to Protect", December 2001, http://www.idrc.ca/openebooks/963-1/
  21. ^ Henkin, Louis. Right V. Might: International Law and the Use of Force. 1991, page 161- 2.
  22. ^ Brittanica
  23. ^ New York Times, July 21, 1990, "Panama Companies Sue U.S. for Damages".
  24. ^ Christian Science Monitor, December 20, 1991, "El Chorrillo Two years after the U.S. invaded Panama, those displaced by the war have new homes."
  25. ^ "www.cpj.org/attacks01/americas01/panama.html".
  26. ^ 50 kilos of Cocaine was tamales Washington Post 1/23/90 accessed September 29 2008.
  27. ^ Operation Just Cause Historical Summary at GlobalSecurity.Org

[edit] Bibliography

  • New York Times, December 21, 1989, "For a Panamanian, Hope and Tragedy", Roberto Eisenmann. (Opinion piece)
  • Hagemeister, Stacy & Solon, Jenny. Operation Just Cause: Lessons Learned – Volume I, II & III (Bulletin No. 90-9). Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: Center for Army Lessons Learned – U.S. Army Combined Arms Command. October, 1990.
  • Stephen J. Ducat. 2004. The Wimp Factor. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-4344-3. p. 101-102.
  • Mellander, Gustavo A.; Nelly Maldonado Mellander (1999). Charles Edward Magoon: The Panama Years. Río Piedras, Puerto Rico: Editorial Plaza Mayor. ISBN 1563281554. OCLC 42970390.
  • Mellander, Gustavo A. (1971). The United States in Panamanian Politics: The Intriguing Formative Years. Danville, Ill.: Interstate Publishers. OCLC 138568.
  • Murillo, Luis E. (1995). The Noriega Mess: The Drugs, the Canal, and Why America Invaded. 1096 pages, illustrated. Berkeley: Video Books. ISBN 0-923444-02-5.

[edit] External links

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