Johns Hopkins

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This article is about the Quaker philanthropist. For the university that bears his name, see Johns Hopkins University.
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Johns Hopkins (May 19, 1795, Anne Arundel County, Maryland – December 24, 1873, Baltimore ) was a wealthy entrepreneur, philanthropist, and abolitionist of 19th century Baltimore, now most noted for his philanthropic creation of the institutions that bear his name, namely the Johns Hopkins University, Johns Hopkins Hospital and Johns Hopkins School of Medicine.

Contents

[edit] Birthplace, family and name

On May 19, 1795, Johns Hopkins was born on Whitehall, a 500-acre (two km²) tobacco plantation with approximately 500 slaves located in Anne Arundel County, Maryland. His birthplace is located close to the intersection of Reidel Road and Johns Hopkins Road in a what is now Crofton. Johns Hopkins, who was nicknamed "Johnsie",[1] was the second son and the second child of the eleven children born to Samuel and Hannah Janney Hopkins. He spent his childhood on the Whitehall plantation where his parents settled after their marriage in a Quaker ceremony in Virginia on August 19, 1792.

The first member of the Hopkins' side of this family to settle in America was Gerrard Hopkins. Gerrard Hopkins emigrated from Canterbury, England and settled in Anne Arundel County, Maryland in the 1660s, approximately one hundred thirty five years before Johns Hopkins' birth. Johns Hopkins' birthplace, Whitehall, was one of many pieces of land purchased by Gerrard Hopkins' son and namesake, and Johns Hopkins' great great grandfather. According to one of Crofton's online sites, "The Hopkins family was in the Crofton area for 270 years and accumulated more than 1000 acres (4 km²) of land".

Johns Hopkins' first name, "Johns", was an unusual first name, but not for children in the Hopkins' family. A tradition of naming sons of the Hopkins' family "Johns" seemed to have started in the second generation after Gerrard Hopkins settled in Anne Arundel County. The son of Gerrard Hopkins (also named Gerrard) was married to Margaret Johns and "Johns", the wife's surname, was the first name they gave their tenth and last child.[2] The first name "Johns" was also given to the first Johns Hopkins' oldest son, and then to the sons of Samuel and Philip Hopkins, the first and second sons of the first Johns Hopkins, by his third wife.[3] Johns Hopkins' siblings also have their mother's surname "Janney" as part of their names.

Both the Janney and Hopkins' families arrived in America with indentured servants. Both families were farmers. Both families accumulated several parcels of land. However, while the Hopkins' family became slave owners like so many other tobacco farmers in Anne Arundel County, the Janney family members were rarely slaveowners. Some members of the Janney family were even outspoken opponents of slavery. For nearly the first fifteen years of their marriage, and for the first twelve years of their son Johns Hopkins' life, Johns Hopkins' parents were Quaker slave owners.

[edit] The emancipation and its aftermath

In 1807[4] Johns Hopkins' parents freed their slaves. The family emancipated their able-bodied slaves, without any request for compensation, and took on the care of the less able-bodied slaves. As members of the local Quaker society, his parents had been among those who decided to emancipate their slaves and made such emanicipation a requirement for all members in their local Quaker society who wanted to retain their membership. Because of this emancipation, the formal education of Johns, then 12, and his older brother, Joseph, then 14, was interrupted. At Whitehall the family often could not afford hired labor. The two oldest of the eleven siblings returned home from school to help with the farm and domestic work. Johns Hopkins also started to help to care for the younger children in the family.

After his father's death in 1814, Johns Hopkins began caring of his mother. His mother died in 1846, a year after brother Joseph Hopkins also died. Johns Hopkins, who lived longer than his other brothers, and who was the most successful of his siblings, continued to support and care for his sibling and their families. Taking care of the elderly and less able-bodied slaves, his siblings, and their families were responsibilities he continually undertook from 1807 onwards. Throughout his life, Johns Hopkins continued to follow in his parents' footsteps, especially when it came to his Quaker faith and the abolitionism he displayed. According to most sources, Johns display a high capacity for hard work and frugality, which were manifested in continued interest in education and aptitude at business. The story of the family's struggles and their life after the 1807 emancipation was told by a relative, Mrs.Helen Hopkins Thom, in the only biography of Johns Hopkins, Johns Hopkins: A Silhouette.

[edit] Business years

After he left the plantation, Hopkins worked for a time in his uncle's wholesale grocery business. His first experience in business operation came while his uncle was away during the War of 1812.

While staying at his uncle's home, he fell in love with his cousin, Elizabeth Hopkins. A Quaker prejudice against the marriage of first cousins existed and Elizabeth's parents would not allow them to marry.[1] They pledged never to marry anyone else and remained single for the rest of their lives. Just as Johns Hopkins provided for his extended family, he provided a home for her in his will. She lived there until her death in 1889, almost fifteen years after his death in 1873.

After he left his uncle's store, Hopkins and Benjamin Moore, also a Quaker, went into business together. The business partnership was later dissolved as Moore claimed that Johns loved money more than he did.[1] It became widely, and perhaps inaccurately, reported that several of Hopkins' business associates were atrributed with saying that Hopkins was "the only man more interested in making money than I."

After Moore's withdrawal, Hopkins partnered with three of his brothers and established Hopkins & Brothers. The company prospered by selling various wares in the Shenandoah Valley from Conestoga wagons, sometimes in exchange for corn whiskey, which was then sold in Baltimore as "Hopkins' Best." Later, Hopkins invested heavily in the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and he also became a banker and a ship owner. He put up his own money more than once to save Baltimore City during financial crises, and at least twice in 1857 and 1873 he bailed the railroad out of debt. [5] During the American Civil War, Hopkins was a strong supporter of the Union, despite the fact that many Marylanders, including many of the leading citizens and businesspersons, sympathized with and often supported the South and the Confederacy.[6] . As the railroad's financial director, he and John Work Garrett, the railroad president, were largely responsible for the use of the railroad to support the Union cause. One of the first campaigns of the Civil War was planned at Johns Hopkins' summer estate, Clifton, and it became a frequent meeting place for local Union sympathizers. In a state which did not vote for Lincoln as the US President, and which opposed Lincoln's presidency and his policies including stationing troops in the state, Hopkins wrote a letter to Lincoln in 1862 requesting the President to keep troops under the command of General John Ellis Wool stationed in Maryland. [7] In addition to using his wealth and the B & O railroad to take troops to the front, Johns Hopkins supplied horsehoes [8] and other supplies to the Union Army.

His business ventures yielded enormous wealth, and Johns Hopkins is listed as the 69th out of 100 wealthiest men according to The Wealthy 100: From Benjamin Franklin to Bill Gates - A Ranking of the Richest Americans, Past and Present. [9]

[edit] His death and his philanthropy

Johns Hopkins died without heirs on Christmas Eve, December 24, 1873. He left $7 million, mostly in Baltimore & Ohio Railroad stock, to establish his namesake institutions. This sum was the single largest philanthropic donation ever made to educational institutions up until that time. The bequest was used to found the Johns Hopkins Colored Children Orphan Asylum [10] first as he requested, in 1875, the Johns Hopkins University in 1876, the Johns Hopkins Press (the longest continuously operating academic press in America) in 1878, the Johns Hopkins Hospital and the Johns Hopkins School of Nursing in 1889, and the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in 1893.

The first of these posthumously founded institutions, the Johns Hopkins Colored Children Orphan Asylum (JHCCOA) aka Johns Hopkins Hospital Colored Children Orphan Asylum (JHHCCOA) [11] was founded by the trustees selected by Johns Hopkins to serve on the hospital board of trustees, one of the two interlocking boards of trustees established by Johns Hopkins. The other institutions were founded under the administration of the first president of the Johns Hopkins University, Daniel Coit Gilman, formerly the president of the University of California. Gilman was unanimously chosen by the trustees of the university board of trustees. The university and the hospital boards of trustees were interlocking ones in that the president of one board was a member of the other board and approximately nine members of the trustees on one board were also members of the second board. Some of these trustees were also the executors of his will. Johns Hopkins' views on their duties and responsibilities and his bequests can be found primarily in four documents, the incorporation papers filed in 1867, his instruction letter to the hospital trustees dated March 12, 1873, in his will, which was quoted from extensively in the Baltimore Sun's obituary, [12] and in his will's two codicils, one dated 1870 and the other dated 1873. [13]. The first obituary appeared in the Baltimore American newspaper. Other obituaries appeared in the New York and Chicago newspapers

The original site for Johns Hopkins University was chosen personally by Hopkins. It was to be located at his summer estate, Clifton. This property, which is now owned by the city of Baltimore, is the site of a golf course and a park named "Clifton Park." This site was referred to in his will. While a decision was made not to found the university at Clifton, the orphan asylum which was constructed by one of most famous architects of that time, was founded first as Johns Hopkins had formally requested. The educational and living facilities were praised at its opening and a Baltimore American reporter said about the orphan asylum founded by the hospital trustees, that it was a place where "nothing was wanting that could benefit science and humanity". It was constructed by one of the most prominent architects of that time, John Niernsee,and after correspondences with those in charge of similar institutions, and visits to such sites in Europe and America. The Johns Hopkins Orphan Asylum opened with 24 boys and girls. This orphanage was later changed to serve as an orphanage and training school for black female orphans principally as domestic workers, and next as an "orthopedic convalescent" home and school for "colored crippled" children and orphanage. It was closed in 1924 nearly fifty years after it opened and never was reopened.

Johns Hopkins' wish for a training school for female nurses was also formally stated in the March 12, 1873 letter. The Johns Hopkins School of Nursing was founded in 1889, also by the hospital trustees led by a fellow Quaker businessman and friend. Florence Nightingale was consulted. Like the colored orphan asylum, the Johns Hopkins School of Nursing was closed in 1973. Unlike the asylum, it reopened in 1983.[14]

Both the nursing school and the hospital were founded in 1889 by the hospital trustees almost sixteen years after the abovementioned instruction letter and Johns Hopkins' death. In this instruction letter completed about eight months before his death, Johns Hopkins formally stated in the section on the hospital his wish to provide assistance to the poor of "all races', and no matter the indigent patient's "age", their sex, second, and their "color" third. Wealthier patients, he wrote, should pay for services and thereby subsidize the care provided to the indigent. The hospital he wrote further was to be the administrative unit for the orphan asylum for African American children, which was to receive $25000 annual support out of the hospital's half of the endowment to the institutions that would become his namesake. The hospital and orphan asylum should serve 400 patients and 400 children respectively. These African American children could be orphaned or could be in need with one parent or two parents.In the abovementioned documents scholarships were provided for poor youths in the states where Johns Hopkins had made his wealth. Assistance was also given to orphanages other than the one for African American children and to other institutions for youths. In addition to the assistance he gave to members of his family, Johns Hopkins provided assistance, often unsolicited, to unrelated youths who needed help to start a career or business. One of the latter youths was one of those who asked Thom to write her biography on Johns Hopkins. Also in his will he provided for those he employed, black and white, his family, the cousin he loved, and many institutions for the care and education of youths, including educational ones for blacks and whites, and for the care of ill,including the mentally ill. In the beginning sentence of the Chicago Tribune's obituary of December 28, 1873, and titled "A NATIONAL BENEFACTOR" it is said "In these days of degeneracy, dishonesty, fraud, and corruption, it is refreshing to read the record of the life of Johns Hopkins, who died in Baltimore last week." Finally, his memory immediately after his death was a decisive factor in opening the doors of Johns Hopkins University to its first African American student, and its first African American graduate student, Kelly Miller, and of Maryland's Medical and Chirurgical Society Med-Chi to the first of its first three African American members, Harvard trained physician Whitfield Winsey[15]. The doors of the Johns Hopkins Institutions and of Maryland's state medical society did not open to persons of African descent as students or as professionals again until after the 1940s, and moreso, the 1960s.

[edit] Johns Hopkins' abolitionism

Johns Hopkins was represented as an abolitionist during three periods in his life in Johns Hopkins: A Silhouette. This biography was published by his relative Mrs. Helen Hopkins Thom in 1929 by the Johns Hopkins Press. Today this biography is still the first and only book-length biography on him. After the 1970s, a few other sources [16] represented him as an abolitionist. [17]. For instance,in 1974 almost fifty years' after Thom's 1929 publication, Kathryn Jacob, a former archivist at Johns Hopkins University's library called him a unionist and an abolitionist.She discussed the 1807 emancipation and also gave examples of his use of the railroad to support the Union cause. In 1995 almost two decades later Mike Field stated that Johns Hopkins was a abolitionist before the word "abolitionist" was "invented" Field's article was published in the Johns Hopkins Gazette to commemorate the bicentennial anniversary of Johns Hopkins' birth in 1795. Jacob's article was published in an alumni publication, the Johns Hopkins Magazine, to commemorate the centennial anniversary of Johns Hopkins' death. Field like Jacob, and Thom before her, also portrayed Johns Hopkins as a child or twelve year old, participant in what Thom referred to as his parents' "abolition" of the family's slaves in 1807.[1]. Both Jacob and Field, though less so Jacob, point to the paucity of writings by him, and both use adjectives like "anecdotal" and "apocryphal" to describe the sources of information on him, including Thom's biography. Jacob's article titled "Mr. Johns Hopkins" has been cited as the best brief biography of Johns Hopkins.

Between 1807 and the Civil War Johns Hopkins' abolitionist stance was also evident. Before the Civil War Johns Hopkins worked closely with two of America's most famous abolitionists, Myrtilla Miner[18] and Henry Ward Beecher[19]. During the Civil War Johns Hopkins was a supporter of Abraham Lincoln[20] In 1862 Johns Hopkins wrote a letter to Lincoln which he signed "your servant" and "friend" . This letter can be found in the holdings of the Library of Congress. [21] While many Marylanders were demanding the removal of troops from Maryland, in this letter Johns Hopkins asked that the troops remain stationed in Maryland. Thom also cited the 1887 memoir by Baltimore's mayor referred to above. In this memoir by George William Brown Johns Hopkins was referred to as a "wealthy Union man" and again a member of a committee of bankers who gave $500,000 to the city of Baltimore after the first bloodshed in the Civil War was shed in Baltimore city.

After the Civil War and during Reconstruction, Thom represented Johns Hopkins as a banker, a railroad man, and an abolitionist. His abolitionism was demonstrated in various ways during this period, some Thom reported and others she did not. The instructions he provided in the four documents mentioned above also said that his philanthropy should be used in ways that were often opposed to the racial practices that were beginning to emerge or re-emerging during the American Reconstruction period,[22] and later even in the posthumously constructed and founded institutions that would carry his name.[23] Local newspapers and magazines in the post Civil War Reconstruction period also covered his actions and they usually praised him for founding three institutions, a university, a hospital and an orphan asylum for colored children. The Baltimore American praised him for being beyond his times when it came to his provisions for blacks and whites in the hospital. This Baltimore reporter also pointed to similarities between Benjamin Franklin's and Johns Hopkins' views on hospital care and construction, such as their shared interest in free hospitals, the availability of emergency services, and the hospital location in urban area.

The newspapers also covered Johns Hopkins and the others who filed an injunction to "block" the holding of the Constitutional convention in Maryland where the present constitution of Maryland was framed. The Maryland Constitution had been previously framed by Marylanders who were unionists and radical republicans. At their 1864 Constitutional Convention they ended slavery in Maryland, required oaths for those who sided with the Confederacy, provided state support for the education of African Americans, and gave the vote to all white males, but not to blacks. The Baltimore Sun article on Johns Hopkins, this injunction, and the response to it can be found online in the Maryland Archives, and in William Starr Myer's book on "self-reconstruction" in Maryland.[24] also online.

1867 was also the sixtieth anniversary of his family's emancipation of their slaves without any request for compensation. The 1867 Constitution passed by the democrats and conservations stated that ex-owners of slaves should be compensated, removed both the requirement of an oath, and the state support of education for African American schools. Again, in articles yet unpublished, Dr. Reynolds points to Johns Hopkins' "dream" and formally stated wish for a colored children orphan asylum and the trustees' founding of it in the papers incorporating the Johns Hopkins Institutions, and discusses its existence for the nearly fifty years before it was completely closed in 1924. Reynolds presents her findings almost seventy years after Thom wrote about his wish for this orphan asylum and reported that Johns Hopkins stated this wish in his "long and painstaking will." Interestingly while Thom stated that Johns Hopkins' wish for an orphan asylum was expressed in his will, she did not mention that this institution was actually opened on Biddle Street in 1885 in her 1929 biography on him,or that it was closed only about five years before this biography was published. Thom did include Johns Hopkins' March 12, 1873 instruction letter at the end of her biography on him, and it is evident that this letter was prepared for the members of the hospital board of trustees.

According to Thom's account, Johns Hopkins was a Reconstruction actor whose abolitionist stance angered the leading citizens of Baltimore especially those who had been supporters pf slavery, secession, the South or the Confederacy. These citizens she wrote attacked and belittled him only after his death and he was no longer able to defend himself.phere is more support for Thom's representation of Johns Hopkins as an almost life long abolitionist in publications during Johns Hopkins' lifetime, and immediately after Johns Hopkins' death, than there are after the founding of the Johns Hopkins University.

Thom's definition of the word "abolitionist" differs in many ways from the definition of the word "abolitionist" used by popular and academic writers until recently. At Johns Hopkins, and in the academy in general, there has been a long-standing convention which only now seems to be ending. The word "abolitionist" coined in 1836 according to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), was long used as a label only to refer to 1830s abolitionists, and their methods and activities. A 2001 publication was praised by reviewers for being one of the first publications on pre-1830s abolitionists, and on their organizations, methods, and activities. In light of this publication, Johns Hopkins appears to be more like the pre-1830s abolitionists than the 1830s abolitionists. Pre-1830s abolitionists were elite white males who used the legal system, the legislatures, petitions, and their wealth to end slavery or to provide education and social services to those of African descent. In addition, the word "abolitionist" was an epithet for many including George William Brown in his 1890 memoir, before, during, and after the Civil War. Even now few call the activities Johns Hopkins undertook after the Civil War abolitionist ones as Thom did.

In line with this conventional way of defining abolitionists, it is unsurprising that writers on Johns Hopkins and on the institutions that carry his name rarely use the label of "abolitionist" for Johns Hopkins. Furthermore, it is almost never reported that the first, and the most well known of the Johns Hopkins Institutions were all posthumously constructed and founded during Reconstruction. This period is an understudied one, especially when one compares attention to it and to the Civil War. Studies of this period like that of Hawkins who wrote the second major history of the Johns Hopkins University and who reviewed local newspapers written during and after Johns Hopkins' lifetime in this history, may well uncover the competing definitions of science, research, medicine, public health, doctoral education, medical education, and education in general, of freedom , cirizenship and equality, or of services and institutions for and of the poor, the aged, women and African Americans, and of the role of those employed by and educated in the elite institutions that emerged during this period. The role and legacy of this real world actor in his world will be better understood with such studies of this period. Such studies may give us a better understanding of the winners and losers in this period's contests, the silences in the literature, including that which surrounded Johns Hopkins and his life story, his abolitionism. The emphases in the academy, public relations, and the media during his lifetime, and since will also be better understood..

Another silence in the literature is that on Thom's discussions of the negative responses to his activities as an abolitionist from 1807 to his death. In her opinion, "hostility" towards Johns Hopkins began with his family's 1807 emancipation in a tobacco growing county dependent on slave labor since slavery became legal in the 1660s. This hostility Thom wrote persisted when he became a banker, philanthropist, and railroad man who often did not subscribe to many of the racial and class prejudices of his time. In addition she criticized those who misrepresented him as illiterate, and as a self-made man. Representing him as a self-made man she wrote ignored the support he received from his own family in Maryland and Virginia, and other Quakers. Representing him as illiterate ignores his literate mother's, his and other efforts undertaken by his family to continue his education after the ending of his family's involvement in slavery and of Johns Hopkins' and his elder brothers' formal education. Thom wrote about a love of learning he inherited from his mother.

Until today Johns Hopkins is cited for saving Baltimore city and the B&O railroad after financial crises. He is rarely cited as an abolitionist, a friend of Lincoln, a Unionist, or for being a businessman who used his earlier war time experiences during and after the War of 1812 to rebuild Baltimore city's economy after the Civil War, as Thom also suggested. Further studies may well provide further support for her representation of Johns Hopkins,including her representation of him as an almost lifelong abolitionist. Future studies also may providee more support for the December 2006 statement of Ross Jones, an alumnus and a retired assistant to six presidents and board of trustees of the Johns Hopkins University who like most others does not refer to Johns Hopkins the abolitionist, namely that "Without Johns Hopkins, I don't think the city of Baltimore or the state or the world would be what it is”.

[edit] The legacy of Johns Hopkins

Johns Hopkins' best known legacy are the institutions that carry his name. The Johns Hopkins University, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Johns Hopkins Schools of Nursing, Medicine, and Public Health, and the other institutions that carry his name are some of the most renowned institutions in the nation, and the world. These institution are renowned for world class services in the areas of research, the sciences, medicine, public health, the arts and humanities and education, particularly medical education. The Johns Hopkins Press founded in 1898, is the longest continuously operating academic press in the nation. Johns Hopkins lived under the first eighteen presidents in America. He was born in the second term of the America's Revolutionary hero and first president, George Washington (Jacob) and died during the second term of Civil War hero and America's eighteenth president Ulysses Grant. Not a president, political, public or literary figure, Johns Hopkins' legacy is less well known and less studied when it comes to his opposition to slavery, his support for quality education and medicine for the poor, the elderly, women and blacks at a time when separate but equal often meant separate but unequal. Johns Hopkins is less well known and less studied as well as the founder of a colored children orphan asylum, the Johns Hopkins Colored Children Orpnan Asylum, as a supporter of Lincoln, the Union and radical republicans, and before that as a child emancipator who became an almost lifelong abolitionist. Understanding his legacy is connected to further knowledge and appreciation of the effect of both his life experiences before during and after the Civil War and his Quaker faith, on this businessman, railroad man, banker, investor, ship owner,[25], and philanthropist and the role of his memory over time within amd without the Johns Hopkins Institutions, Baltimore city, Maryland, the nation, before and after Reconstruction, and his memory's effect on the roe of the poor no matter their age, sex, color, and ability to pay, especially in the areas of education, medicine, and public health.

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b c d Johns Hopkins University - Sheridan Libraries article Mr. Johns Hopkins by Kathryn A. Jacob reproduced from the Johns Hopkins Magazine January 1974 issue (vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 13-17)
  2. ^ Johns Hopkins University's website Who was Johns Hopkins
  3. ^ [1] Genealogical records of Marylanders, Gerrard, and Margaret Johns.
  4. ^ Johns Hopkins:A Silhouette, Helen Hopkins Thom, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1929 -- the first and only book-length biography on Johns Hopkins. Used as source by Jacob cited above, Findalibrary
  5. ^ [2] Johns Hopkins, Maryland State Archives
  6. ^ [3] Baltimore and the Nineteenth of April, 1861: A Study of the War is the memoir of George William Brown an ex-mayor of Baltimore city.
  7. ^ Ibid.
  8. ^ Border Town, Style Magazine, 2005
  9. ^ List from The Wealthy 100: From Benjamin Franklin to Bill Gates - A Ranking of the Richest Americans, Past and Present
  10. ^ [4] Johns Hopkins University's Website, The Institutional Records of The Johns Hopkins Hospital Colored Orphan Asylum
  11. ^ [5] Johns Hopkins Dream for a Model of its Kind: The JHH Colored Orphans Asylum, abstract, 2000 Conference International Society for the History of Medicine By Dr. P. Reynolds
  12. ^ [6] Obituary, Baltimore Sun, December 25, 1873 in Johns Hopkins Gazette, Jan. 4, 1999,v. 28,no. 16
  13. ^ [7] The Chronicles of Baltimore: Being a Complete History of "Baltimore Town and Baltimore City from the Earliest Period to the Present Time published in 1874, John Thomas Scharf cited the 1873 instruction letter to the hospital trustees and a city council resolution thanking Johns Hopkins for his philanthropy. Thom's biography and New York and Maryland newspapers were sources that published parts or all of this letter.
  14. ^ [8] Johns Hopkins University 's website, History of the School of Nursing
  15. ^ [9]Medicine in Maryland 1752-1920
  16. ^ [10]The Racial Record of Johns Hopkins University in the Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, No. 25, Autumn, 1999, pp. 42-43 in JSTOR
  17. ^ [11] See Jacob's 1974 article and Thom's 1929 biography.
  18. ^ Myrtilla Miner, 2007 Encyclopædia Britannica
  19. ^ Myrtilla Miner, 2007 Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History
  20. ^ See Johns Hopkins' letter to Lincoln in the holdings of the Library of Congress
  21. ^ Ibid.
  22. ^ [12] Documents cited in "Chronology", Johns Hopkins University's website. See also "The History of African Americans @ Johns Hopkins University",in particular its chronology and the paper by Danton Rodriguez, "The Racial Record of Johns Hopkins University in the Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, No. 25, Autumn, 1999, pp. 42-43 in JSTOR
  23. ^ [13] The History of African Americans @ Johns Hopkins University" See in particular its chronology and the paper by Danton Rodriguez and the chronology on Johns Hopkins University's website cited immediately above.
  24. ^ [14] The Self-Reconstruction of Maryland, 1864-1867
  25. ^ [15] “Merchants & Miners Transportation Co.”, [16] “Troopships of World War II”

[edit] External links


Persondata
NAME Hopkins, Johns
ALTERNATIVE NAMES
SHORT DESCRIPTION entrepreneur, philanthropist, abolitionist
DATE OF BIRTH 1795-05-19
PLACE OF BIRTH Anne Arundel County, Maryland
DATE OF DEATH 1873-12-24
PLACE OF DEATH Baltimore, Maryland
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns_Hopkins"
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