Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (Swedish: Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin) is awarded once a year by the Swedish Karolinska Institute. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895, awarded for outstanding contributions in Physics, Chemistry, Literature, Peace, and Physiology or Medicine since 1901. The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to Emil Adolf von Behring, a German, "for his work on serum therapy, especially its application against diphtheria, by which he has opened a new road in the domain of medical science and thereby placed in the hands of the physician a victorious weapon against illness and deaths." This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in these fields. It is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel's death. "The highlight of the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm is when each Nobel Laureate steps forward to receive the prize from the hands of His Majesty the King of Sweden. ... Under the eyes of a watching world, the Nobel Laureate receives three things: a diploma, a medal and a document confirming the prize amount" ("What the Nobel Laureates Receive").
In 2007 the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Mario Capecchi (of Italy), Sir Martin Evans (of the United Kingdom), and Oliver Smithies (of the United Kingdom and the United States), "for their discoveries for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells"; they share the prize amount of 10,000,000 SEK (slightly more than €1 million, or US$1.4 million). The front side of "The medal of the Nobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute" provides the same profile of Alfred Nobel depicted on the medals for Physics, Chemistry, and Literature; its reverse side "represents the Genius of Medicine holding an open book in her lap, collecting the water pouring out from a rock in order to quench a sick girl's thirst" ("The Nobel Prize Medals").
[edit] List of Laureates
The following list includes the 189 Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine[1] since its inception in 1901.[1]
Year | Name | Country | Citation |
---|---|---|---|
1901 | Emil Adolf von Behring | Germany | "for his work on serum therapy, especially its application against diphtheria, by which he has opened a new road in the domain of medical science and thereby placed in the hands of the physician a victorious weapon against illness and deaths"[2] |
1902 | Ronald Ross | United Kingdom | "for his work on malaria, by which he has shown how it enters the organism and thereby has laid the foundation for successful research on this disease and methods of combating it"[3] |
1903 | Niels Ryberg Finsen | Denmark | "in recognition of his contribution to the treatment of diseases, especially lupus vulgaris, with concentrated light radiation, whereby he has opened a new avenue for medical science"[4] |
1904 | Ivan Petrovich Pavlov | Russia | "in recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion, through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged"[5] |
1905 | Robert Koch | Germany | "for his investigations and discoveries in relation to tuberculosis"[6] |
1906 | Camillo Golgi Santiago Ramón y Cajal |
Italy Spain |
"in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system"[7] |
1907 | Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran | France | "in recognition of his work on the role played by protozoa in causing diseases"[8] |
1908 | Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov Paul Ehrlich |
Russia Germany |
"in recognition of their work on immunity"[9] |
1909 | Emil Theodor Kocher | Switzerland | "for his work on the physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid gland"[10] |
1910 | Albrecht Kossel | Germany | "in recognition of the contributions to our knowledge of cell chemistry made through his work on proteins, including the nucleic substances"[11] |
1911 | Allvar Gullstrand | Sweden | "for his work on the dioptrics of the eye"[12] |
1912 | Alexis Carrel | France | "in recognition of his work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs"[13] |
1913 | Charles Robert Richet | France | "in recognition of his work on anaphylaxis"[14] |
1914 | Robert Bárány | Hungary /Austria | "for his work on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus"[15] |
1915 | [No award] | ||
1916 | [No award] | ||
1917 | [No award] | ||
1918 | [No award] | ||
1919 | Jules Bordet | Belgium | "for his discoveries relating to immunity"[16] |
1920 | Schack August Steenberg Krogh | Denmark | "for his discovery of the capillary motor regulating mechanism" (for showing that the gas exchange in the lungs is ordinary diffusion)[17] |
1921 | [No award] | ||
1922 | Archibald Vivian Hill | United Kingdom | "for his discovery relating to the production of heat in the muscle"[18] |
Otto Fritz Meyerhof | Germany | "for his discovery of the fixed relationship between the consumption of oxygen and the metabolism of lactic acid in the muscle"[18] | |
1923 | Frederick Grant Banting John James Richard Macleod |
Canada United Kingdom |
"for the discovery of insulin"[19] |
1924 | Willem Einthoven | Netherlands | "for the discovery of the mechanism of the electrocardiogram"[20] |
1925 | [No award] | ||
1926 | Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger | Denmark | "for his discovery of the Spiroptera carcinoma"[21] |
1927 | Julius Wagner-Jauregg | Austria | "for his discovery of the therapeutic value of malaria inoculation in the treatment of dementia paralytica"[22] |
1928 | Charles Jules Henri Nicolle | France | "for his work on typhus"[23] |
1929 | Christiaan Eijkman | Netherlands | "for his discovery of the antineuritic vitamin"[24] |
Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins | United Kingdom | "for his discovery of the growth-stimulating vitamins"[24] | |
1930 | Karl Landsteiner | Austria | "for his discovery of human blood groups"[25] |
1931 | Otto Heinrich Warburg | Germany | "for his discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme"[26] |
1932 | Sir Charles Scott Sherrington Edgar Douglas Adrian |
United Kingdom United Kingdom |
"for their discoveries regarding the functions of neurons"[27] |
1933 | Thomas Hunt Morgan | United States | "for his discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome in heredity"[28] |
1934 | George Hoyt Whipple George Richards Minot William Parry Murphy |
United States United States United States |
"for their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases of anaemia"[29] |
1935 | Hans Spemann | Germany | "for his discovery of the organizer effect in embryonic development"[30] |
1936 | Sir Henry Hallett Dale Otto Loewi |
United Kingdom; Germany 1903: Austria 1946: United States |
"for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses"[31] |
1937 | Albert Szent-Györgyi von Nagyrapolt | Hungary | "for his discoveries in connection with the biological combustion processes, with special reference to vitamin C and the catalysis of fumaric acid"[32] |
1938 | Corneille Jean François Heymans | Belgium | "for the discovery of the role played by the sinus and aortic mechanisms in the regulation of respiration"[33] |
1939 | Gerhard Domagk | Germany | "for the discovery of the antibacterial effects of prontosil"[34] |
1940 | [No award] | ||
1941 | [No award] | ||
1942 | [No award] | ||
1943 | Carl Peter Henrik Dam | Denmark | "for his discovery of vitamin K"[35] |
Edward Adelbert Doisy | United States | "for his discovery of the chemical nature of vitamin K"[35] | |
1944 | Joseph Erlanger Herbert Spencer Gasser |
United States United States |
"for their discoveries relating to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres"[36] |
1945 | Sir Alexander Fleming Ernst Boris Chain Sir Howard Walter Florey |
United Kingdom; Germany /United Kingdom; Australia /United Kingdom |
"for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases"[37] |
1946 | Hermann Joseph Muller | United States | "for the discovery of the production of mutations by means of X-ray irradiation"[38] |
1947 | Carl Ferdinand Cori Gerty Theresa Cori, née Radnitz |
Czechoslovakia /United States; Czechoslovakia /United States |
"for their discovery of the course of the catalytic conversion of glycogen"[39] |
Bernardo Alberto Houssay | Argentina | "for his discovery of the part played by the hormone of the anterior pituitary lobe in the metabolism of sugar"[39] | |
1948 | Paul Hermann Müller | Switzerland | "for his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods"[40] |
1949 | Walter Rudolf Hess | Switzerland | "for his discovery of the functional organization of the interbrain as a coordinator of the activities of the internal organs"[41] |
Antonio Caetano De Abreu Freire Egas Moniz | Portugal | "for his discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy in certain psychoses"[41] | |
1950 | Edward Calvin Kendall Tadeusz Reichstein Philip Showalter Hench |
United States; Poland /Switzerland; United States |
"for their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects"[42] |
1951 | Max Theiler | South Africa /Switzerland | "for his discoveries concerning yellow fever and how to combat it"[43] |
1952 | Selman Abraham Waksman | Russia, 1916: United States | "for his discovery of streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis"[44] |
1953 | Hans Adolf Krebs | West Germany /United Kingdom | "for his discovery of the citric acid cycle"[45] |
Fritz Albert Lipmann | West Germany /United States | "for his discovery of co-enzyme A and its importance for intermediary metabolism"[45] | |
1954 | John Franklin Enders Thomas Huckle Weller Frederick Chapman Robbins |
United States United States United States |
"for their discovery of the ability of poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures of various types of tissue"[46] |
1955 | Axel Hugo Theodor Theorell | Sweden | "for his discoveries concerning the nature and mode of action of oxidation enzymes"[47] |
1956 | André Frédéric Cournand Werner Forssmann Dickinson W. Richards |
France, 1941: United States; West Germany United States |
"for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system"[48] |
1957 | Daniel Bovet | Switzerland /Italy | "for his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and especially their action on the vascular system and the skeletal muscles"[49] |
1958 | George Wells Beadle Edward Lawrie Tatum |
United States United States |
"for their discovery that genes act by regulating definite chemical events"[50] |
Joshua Lederberg | United States | "for his discoveries concerning genetic recombination and the organization of the genetic material of bacteria"[50] | |
1959 | Severo Ochoa Arthur Kornberg |
Spain /United States; United States |
"for their discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid"[51] |
1960 | Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet Peter Brian Medawar |
Australia; Brazil /United Kingdom |
"for discovery of acquired immunological tolerance"[52] |
1961 | Georg von Békésy | Hungary | "for his discoveries of the physical mechanism of stimulation within the cochlea"[53] |
1962 | Francis Harry Compton Crick James Dewey Watson Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins |
United Kingdom; United States; New Zealand /United Kingdom |
"for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material"[54] |
1963 | Sir John Carew Eccles Alan Lloyd Hodgkin Andrew Fielding Huxley |
Australia United Kingdom United Kingdom |
"for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane"[55] |
1964 | Konrad Bloch Feodor Lynen |
West Germany /United States; West Germany |
"for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism"[56] |
1965 | François Jacob André Lwoff Jacques Monod |
France France France |
"for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis"[57] |
1966 | Peyton Rous | United States | "for his discovery of tumour-inducing viruses"[58] |
Charles B. Huggins | Canada /United States | "for his discoveries concerning hormonal treatment of prostatic cancer"[58] | |
1967 | Ragnar Granit Haldan Keffer Hartline George Wald |
Finland 1940: Sweden; United States United States |
"for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye"[59] |
1968 | Robert W. Holley Har Gobind Khorana Marshall W. Nirenberg |
United States; India 1966: United States; United States |
"for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis"[60] |
1969 | Max Delbrück Alfred Hershey Salvador E. Luria |
West Germany /United States; United States; Italy |
"for their discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses"[61] |
1970 | Sir Bernard Katz Ulf von Euler Julius Axelrod |
West Germany 1941: United Kingdom; Sweden United States |
"for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation"[62] |
1971 | Earl W. Sutherland, Jr. | United States | "for his discoveries concerning the mechanisms of the action of hormones"[63] |
1972 | Gerald M. Edelman Rodney R. Porter |
United States United Kingdom |
"for their discoveries concerning the chemical structure of antibodies"[64] |
1973 | Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz Nikolaas Tinbergen |
Austria Austria Netherlands |
"for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns"[65] |
1974 | Albert Claude Christian de Duve George E. Palade |
Belgium; Belgium; Romania 1952: United States |
"for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell"[66] |
1975 | David Baltimore Renato Dulbecco Howard Martin Temin |
United States; Italy /United States; United States |
"for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell"[67] |
1976 | Baruch S. Blumberg D. Carleton Gajdusek |
United States United States |
"for their discoveries concerning new mechanisms for the origin and dissemination of infectious diseases"[68] |
1977 | Roger Guillemin Andrew Viktor Schally |
France 1965: United States; United States |
"for their discoveries concerning the peptide hormone production of the brain"[69] |
Rosalyn Yalow | United States | "for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones"[69] | |
1978 | Werner Arber Daniel Nathans Hamilton O. Smith |
Switzerland United States United States |
"for the discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to problems of molecular genetics"[70] |
1979 | Allan M. Cormack Godfrey N. Hounsfield |
South Africa 1966: United States; United Kingdom |
"for the development of computer assisted tomography"[71] |
1980 | Baruj Benacerraf Jean Dausset George D. Snell |
Venezuela 1943: United States; France; United States |
"for their discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions"[72] |
1981 | Roger W. Sperry | United States | "for his discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres"[73] |
David H. Hubel Torsten N. Wiesel |
Canada /United States Sweden |
"for their discoveries concerning information processing in the visual system"[73] | |
1982 | Sune Bergström Bengt I. Samuelsson John R. Vane |
Sweden Sweden United Kingdom |
"for their discoveries concerning prostaglandins and related biologically active substances"[74] |
1983 | Barbara McClintock | United States | "for her discovery of mobile genetic elements"[75] |
1984 | Niels K. Jerne Georges J.F. Köhler César Milstein |
Denmark; West Germany; Argentina |
"for theories concerning the specificity in development and control of the immune system and the discovery of the principle for production of monoclonal antibodies"[76] |
1985 | Michael S. Brown Joseph L. Goldstein |
United States United States |
"for their discoveries concerning the regulation of cholesterol metabolism"[77] |
1986 | Stanley Cohen Rita Levi-Montalcini |
United States; Italy /United States |
"for their discoveries of growth factors"[78] |
1987 | Susumu Tonegawa | Japan | "for his discovery of the genetic principle for generation of antibody diversity"[79] |
1988 | Sir James W. Black Gertrude B. Elion George H. Hitchings |
United Kingdom United States United States |
"for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment"[80] |
1989 | J. Michael Bishop Harold E. Varmus |
United States United States |
"for their discovery of the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes"[81] |
1990 | Joseph E. Murray E. Donnall Thomas |
United States United States |
"for their discoveries concerning organ and cell transplantation in the treatment of human disease"[82] |
1991 | Erwin Neher Bert Sakmann |
Germany Germany |
"for their discoveries concerning the function of single ion channels in cells"[83] |
1992 | Edmond H. Fischer Edwin G. Krebs |
Switzerland /United States; United States |
"for their discoveries concerning reversible protein phosphorylation as a biological regulatory mechanism"[84] |
1993 | Richard J. Roberts Phillip A. Sharp |
United Kingdom United States |
"for their discoveries of split genes"[85] |
1994 | Alfred G. Gilman Martin Rodbell |
United States United States |
"for their discovery of G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells"[86] |
1995 | Edward B. Lewis Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard Eric F. Wieschaus |
United States Germany United States |
"for their discoveries concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development"[87] |
1996 | Peter C. Doherty Rolf M. Zinkernagel |
Australia Switzerland |
"for their discoveries concerning the specificity of the cell mediated immune defence"[88] |
1997 | Stanley B. Prusiner | United States | "for his discovery of Prions - a new biological principle of infection"[89] |
1998 | Robert F. Furchgott Louis J. Ignarro Ferid Murad |
United States United States United States |
"for their discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system"[90] |
1999 | Günter Blobel | Germany 1987: United States | "for the discovery that proteins have intrinsic signals that govern their transport and localization in the cell"[91] |
2000 | Arvid Carlsson Paul Greengard Eric R. Kandel |
Sweden United States United States |
"for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system"[92] |
2001 | Leland H. Hartwell R. Timothy (Tim) Hunt Sir Paul M. Nurse |
United States United Kingdom United Kingdom |
"for their discoveries of key regulators of the cell cycle"[93] |
2002 | Sydney Brenner H. Robert Horvitz John E. Sulston |
South Africa /United Kingdom 2003: Singapore[94] (honorary); United States; United Kingdom |
"for their discoveries concerning 'genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death'"[95] |
2003 | Paul Lauterbur Sir Peter Mansfield |
United States United Kingdom |
"for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging"[96] |
2004 | Richard Axel Linda B. Buck |
United States United States |
"for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system"[97] |
2005 | Barry J. Marshall J. Robin Warren |
Australia Australia |
"for their discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease"[98] |
2006 | Andrew Z. Fire Craig C. Mello |
United States United States |
"for their discovery of RNA interference - gene silencing by double-stranded RNA"[99] |
2007 | Mario Capecchi Sir Martin Evans Oliver Smithies |
Italy /United States; United Kingdom; United Kingdom /United States |
"for their discoveries for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells."[100] |
[edit] References
- ^ "All Nobel Laureates in Medicine". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-27.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1901". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1902". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1903". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1904". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1906". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1907". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1908". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1909". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1910". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1911". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1912". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1913". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1914". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1919". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1920". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ a b "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1922". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1923". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1924". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1926". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1927". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1928". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ a b "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1929". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1930". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1931". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1932". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1933". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1934". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1935". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1936". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1937". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1938". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1939". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ a b "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1943". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1944". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1945". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1946". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ a b "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1947". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1948". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ a b "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1949". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1950". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1951". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1952". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ a b "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1953". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1954". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1955". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1956". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1957". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ a b "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1958". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1959". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1960". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1961". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1963". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1964". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1965". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ a b "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1966". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1967". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1968". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1969". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1970". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1971". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1972". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1973". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1974". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1975". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1976". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ a b "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1977". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1978". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1979". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1980". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ a b "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1981". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1982". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1983". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1984". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1985". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1986". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1987". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1988". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1989". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1990". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1991". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1992". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1993". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1994". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1995". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1996". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1997". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1998". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1999". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2000". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2001". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "Sydney Brenner, PhD: Biography". 2005 IEEE Computational Systems Bioinformatics Conference. Retrieved on 2007-08-14.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2002". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2003". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2004". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2005". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2006". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2007". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-10-08.
[edit] External links
- "All Nobel Laureates in Medicine" – Index webpage on the official site of the Nobel Foundation.
- "The Nobel Prize Award Ceremonies" – Official hyperlinked webpage of the Nobel Foundation.
- "The Nobel Prize Medals and the Medal for the Prize in Economics" – By Birgitta Lemmel; an article on the history of the design of the medals featured on the official site.
- "The Nobel Prize Medal for Physiology or Medicine" – Official webpage of the Nobel Foundation.
- "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine" – Official site of the Nobel Foundation.
- "What the Nobel Laureates Receive" – Featured link in "The Nobel Prize Award Ceremonies".
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