Neo-Nazism

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The term neo-Nazism refers to post-World War II political movements, social movements, and ideologies seeking to revive Nazism, or some variant that echos core aspects of Nazism such as racial or ethnic nationalism or Völkisch integralism.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]

Neo-Nazis rarely use the word neo-Nazi to describe themselves, often opting for labels such as National Socialist, Nationalist or related terms.[5] A few scholars refer to neo-Nazism as "neo-National Socialism."[1] Some groups and individuals who support the ideology openly eschew Nazi-like terms to avoid social stigma or legal consequences.[citation needed] Some European countries have laws prohibiting the expression of pro-Nazi, racist or anti-Semitic views.

Neo-Nazis often use the Indo-Aryan symbols that were in use by Nazi Germany, such as the Swastika, Sig Runes and the red-white-black color scheme. Neo-Nazi activity appears to be a global phenomenon, with organized representation in many countries, as well as international networks. It has recently been exported to Israel.[8][9] Individuals who have been involved in post-war Nazi and neo-Nazi activity include Colin Jordan, George Lincoln Rockwell, John Tyndall, Savitri Devi, Francis Parker Yockey,[10] David Duke,[11][12][13] William Pierce, Eddy Morrison, and David Myatt.

Contents

Holocaust denial and minimization

Main article: Holocaust denial

Many neo-Nazis promote Holocaust denial or Holocaust minimization. They claim that the intentional mass murder (often in gas chambers) of more than 6,000,000 Jews is either a lie or grossly exaggerated. Leading historians' estimates of the number of Jews who died during the Holocaust range from 5.1 to 6.2 million.[14][15][16][17][18][19] Some Holocaust deniers do not identify themselves as neo-Nazis. Some neo-Nazis who do not deny that the Holocaust happened have pointed out alleged immoral equivalencies (e.g. the bombing of Dresden and the Expulsion of Germans after World War II); or they have have justified executions by the Nazis as retaliations for sabotage, terrorism and subversion.

Austria

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Immediately after the Allies liberated Austria in 1945, the anti-Nazi parties - Socialists (SPÖ), Conservatives (ÖVP) and Communists (KPÖ) - passed legislation to overcome the effects of Nazi rule. A law passed on May 8, 1945, banned the NSDAP and Nazi activities. The denazification program designed to purge the state apparatus and society of Nazi followers was not successful, mainly because of the size of the problem and the bureaucratic shortcomings of the program. This failure was reflected primarily in the fact that ex-members and sympathizers of the NSDAP did not change their beliefs. Over 500,000 registered Nazis were allowed to vote in the 1949 general election.[citation needed] A considerable number of ex-Nazis were integrated into the SPÖ and the ÖVP, and several concessions were made to appease them, such as suppression of the history of the Nazizeit (literally 'Nazi Time'); a fall-off in the prosecutions of Nazi war criminals; and the reinstatement of Nazi civil servants, teachers, professors, lawyers and police officers.

In the 1949 Austrian elections, ex-Nazis in the Verband der Unabhängigen (VdU) put up candidates and won seats, and the Austrian right wing went through a process of growth. The withdrawal of Allied troops from Austria in 1955 encouraged the consolidation of right-wing groups, ranging from neo-Nazis to moderate Pan-Germans. The VdU split in 1955, but re-formed itself one year later as the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ). The first leaders of the FPÖ were former Nazis, such as Anton Reinthaller, who had been a government minister in the Nazi era, and Friedrich Peter, who had been a Schutzstaffel (SS) officer. The Austrian public saw itself confronted with the organized right for the first time in 1959, during the Schiller Celebrations, when Pan-German youth, sport and cultural organizations took to the streets. The FPÖ's students' organization RFS and its graduate equivalent Freiheitliche Akademikerverbände (FAV) attained considerable influence within student and university bodies.[citation needed]

1960s and later

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In the 1960s, right-wing extremists, along with German Kameraden, gained notoriety by involvement in terrorist acts in the Italian province of Bolzano-Bozen[citation needed]. Prominent among these was Norbert Burger, the ex-RFS leader and subsequent chairman of the neo-Nazi Nationaldemokratische Partei (NDP). The influence that the extreme right had gained in the universities became dramatically apparent five years later, during the Borodajkewycz Affair. Hundreds of students demonstrated in favor of the anti-semitic university professor Borodajkewycz, and were involved in street battles – in the course of which Ernst Kirchweger, a former concentration camp inmate, was beaten to death.[citation needed]

During the 1960s and 1970s, Friedrich Peter, Chairman of the FPÖ, started establishing his party within the democratic party system – leading up to the entry of the FPÖ into a coalition government with the Socialists in 1983. This development led to the formation of a group around Norbert Burger (condemned in absentia by an Italian court for terrorist offenses in Bolzano), which split from the FPÖ in 1966 and set up the NDP. In contrast to its German counterpart of the same name, the Austrian NDP found little resonance in an electorate moving to the left in the late 1960s. In 1972, Kurt Waldheim, a Wehrmacht officer and SA member during the Nazi regime, was elected United Nations Secretary General. Waldheim's election had caused anger among some people who had lost relatives in the Holocaust, as well as anti-UN groups who theorized the UN was supportive of totalitarian ideologies.[citation needed]

The volume "Rechtsextremismus in Österreich seit 1945" ("Right-wing Extremism in Austria since 1945"), issued by DÖW in 1979, listed nearly 50 active extreme right-wing organizations in Austria. Their influence waned gradually, partly due to liberalization programs in secondary schools and universities that emphasized Austrian identity and democratic traditions. Votes for the RFS in student elections fell from 30% in the 1960s to 2% in 1987. In the 1995 elections for the student representative body Österreichische Hochschülerschaft, the RFS got 4% of the vote. The FPÖ won 22% of the votes at the General Election in the same year.[20] In the 1980s, in the province of Carinthia, border issues with Slovenia – and disagreements over the rights of Carinthia's Slovenian minority – were used to orchestrate support for the far right organization Kärntner Heimatdienst.

Belgium

Main article: Bloed-Bodem-Eer en Trouw

A Belgian neo-Nazi organization, Bloed-Bodem-Eer-Trouw (Blood, Land, Honour and Faithfulness), was created in 2004 after splitting from the international network (Blood and Honour). The group rose to public prominence in September 2006, after 17 members (including 11 soldiers) were arrested under the December 2003 anti-terrorist laws and laws against racism, anti-semitism and negationism. According to Justice Minister Laurette Onkelinx and Interior Minister Patrick Dewael, the suspects (11 of whom were members of the military) were preparing terrorist attacks in order to "destabilize" Belgium.[21][22] According to journalist Manuel Abramowicz, of the Resistances network, the ultras of the radical right have always had as its aim to "infiltrate the state mechanisms," including the army in the 1970s and the 1980s, through Westland New Post and the Front de la Jeunesse.[23]

A police operation, which mobilized 150 agents, searched five military barracks (in Leopoldsburg near the Dutch border: Kleine-Brogel, Peer, Brussels (Royal military school) and Zedelgem – as well as 18 private addresses in Flanders. They found weapons, munitions, explosives, and a homemade bomb large enough to make "a car explode." The leading suspect, B.T., was organizing the trafficking of weapons, and was developing international links, in particular with the Dutch far right movement De Nationale Alliantie[24][25][26][27][28][29]

Croatia

See also: Neo-Nazism in Croatia

Neo-Nazis in Croatia base their ideology on the writings of Ante Pavelić and Ustaše ideology. The resurgence of the Ustaše movement in post-war Croatia is partly due to significant financial support of the Croatian Democratic Union by Croat far-right emigrants.[citation needed] For many of their modern supporters, the Ustaše are considered victims of the Bleiburg massacre, and the late president Franjo Tuđman even proposed to rebury Ustaše members together with victims of the Jasenovac concentration camp, as a sign of national reconciliation.[30][31] Croatian Serbs and majority of Croats felt insulted by that proposal.

In 1999, Zagreb's Square of the Victims of Fascism was renamed The Square of The Great Men of Croatia, provoking widespread criticism of Croatia's attitude toward the Holocaust.[32] In 2000, city council renamed the square to Square of the Victims of Fascism again.[33] Two streets in Croatia were renamed after the prominent Ustaše figure Mile Budak, but since 2002, there has been a reversal of this development, and streets with the name of persons connected with the Ustaše movement are few or non-existent.[34]

During some protests in Croatia, supporters of Ante Gotovina and other suspected war criminals have carried nationalist symbols and pictures of Ante Pavelić. In 2003, an attempt was made to amend the Croatian penal code by adding articles prohibiting the public display of Nazi symbols, the propagation of Nazi ideology, historical revisionism and holocaust denial but attempt become successful only in 2006 when amendment was added to prohibit any type of hate crime based on factors such as race, color, gender, sexual orientation, religion or national origin.[35] In 2007, Austrian authorities launched a criminal investigation into the widespread display of Ustaše symbols at the May 12 gathering of Croatian nationalists in Bleiburg, Austria.[36]

Thompson, a Croatian singer, allegedly sung "Jasenovac i Gradiška Stara" in one of his concerts. That song glorifies the Ustaše and their persecution of the Serbs. His May 17, 2007 concert in Zagreb was attended by 60000 people, many of them wearing Ustaše uniforms.[citation needed] Some gave Ustaše salutes.This event prompted the Jerusalem office of the Simon Wiesenthal Center to publicly address a protest to the Croatian president, Stjepan Mesić.[37][38]

France

Main article: History of far-right movements in France

Neo-Nazi organizations in France include the Bloc identitaire, created by former members of Christian Bouchet's Unité Radicale group. Close to national bolshevism and Third Position ideologies, Unité Radicale was dissolved in 2002 following Maxime Brunerie's assassination attempt on July 14, 2002 against then President Jacques Chirac. Christian Bouchet had previously been a member of Nouvelle Résistance (NR), an off-shoot of Troisième Voie (Third Way) which described itself as "nationalist revolutionary." Although the NR opposed at first the "national conservatives" of Jean-Marie Le Pen's National Front, it finally changed strategy, advocating as slogan "Less Leftism! More Fascism![39]" The NR was also a successor to Jean-François Thiriart's Jeune Europe Neo-Nazi Europeanist movement of the 1960s, which had participated to the National Party of Europe, along with Oswald Mosley's Union Movement, Otto Strasser and others.

Germany

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Further information: Far right in Germany

In Germany immediately after World War II, Allied forces and the new German government attempted to prevent the creation of new Nazi movements through a process known as denazification. The West German government had passed strict laws prohibiting Nazis from publicly expressing their beliefs as well as barring them from the political process. Displaying the swastika was an offense punishable by up to one year imprisonment. There was little overt neo-Nazi activity in Europe until the 1960s. However, some former Nazis retained their political beliefs, and passed them down to new generations.

After German reunification in the 1990s, neo-Nazi groups gained more followers, mostly among disaffected teenagers in the former East Germany. Many were new groups that arose amidst the economic collapse and high unemployment in the former East Germany. They have also had an aversion to people from Slavic countries (especially Poland) and people of other national backgrounds who moved from the former West Germany into the former German Democratic Republic after Germany was reunited. Much of their ideology was similar to Strasserism.

Activities

German neo-Nazis have attacked accommodations for refugees and migrant workers in Hoyerswerda (September 17-September 22, 1991); Rostock-Lichtenhagen (August 23-August 27, 1992); and Schwedt, Eberswalde, Eisenhüttenstadt, Elsterwerda (October 1991), and painted graffiti on 9 Polish-owned cars in Löcknitz (13 January 2008).[40] Neo-Nazis were involved in the murders of three Turkish girls in a November 23, 1992 arson attack in Mölln, in which nine other people were injured. A May 29, 1993 arson attack by far right skinheads on the house of a Turkish family in Solingen resulted in the deaths of two women and three girls, as well as in severe injuries for seven other people.[41] This, and similar incidents preceded demonstrations in many German cities involving hundreds of thousands of people protesting against far right violence.[citation needed] These protests precipitated massive neo-Nazi counter-demonstrations and violent clashes between neo-Nazis and anti-fascists. Statistics show that in 1991, there were 849 hate crimes, and in 1992 there were 1,485 (with a significant concentration in the eastern Bundesländer). After 1992, the numbers went down, although they have risen sharply in subsequent years. In 4 decades of the former East Germany, 17 people have been murdered by far right groups.[42]

Legal issues

German law forbids the production of pro-Nazi materials, so such items are smuggled into the country mostly from the United States, Scandinavia, the Czech Republic, Hungary and Italy.[citation needed] Neo-Nazi rock bands such as Landser have been outlawed in Germany, yet bootleg copies of their albums printed in the US and other countries are still sold in the country.

Some neo-Nazis make use of the Reichskriegflagge, which is still legal in Germany.
Some neo-Nazis make use of the Reichskriegflagge, which is still legal in Germany.

German neo-Nazi websites mostly depend on Internet servers in the US and Canada, and use other terms for Nazi ideas and symbols. They also invent new symbols reminiscent of the swastika and adopt other symbols used by the Nazis, such as the sun disc, sun wheel, hooked cross, wolf's cross, wolf's hook, black sun, and dark star. A trial was held before the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany over the prohibition of the National Democratic Party (NPD), which had been accused of being a partly neo-Nazism accepting party.[citation needed] In the course of the trial, it was discovered that some high-ranking party members worked as informants for the domestic intelligence service, the Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz. The trial was temporarily suspended, and then rejected by the court because of the unclear influence of informants within the NPD.

In 2004, NPD received 9.1% of the vote in the parliamentary elections for Saxony, thus earning the right to seat local parliament members.[43] The other parties refused to enter discussions with the NPD. In the 2006 parliamentary elections for Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, the NPD received 7.3% of the vote and six seats in the local parliament. Other neo-Nazi groups that have been active in Germany and have attracted government attention include the Volkssozialistische Bewegung Deutschlands/Partei der Arbeit (which was banned in 1982), the Action Front of National Socialists/National Activists (banned in 1983), the Nationalist Front (banned in 1992), the Free German Workers' Party of Michael Kühnen and Friedhelm Busse, the German Alternative and National Offensive.

Greece

The most notable Greek neo-Nazi political organization is Chrysi Avyi. Twelve Greek neo-Nazis participated as volunteers in the Yugoslav wars in Bosnia, aiding the Serbian Army in capturing the town of Srebrenica.[44]

Israel

Israel has seen a surge of neo-Nazi activity in the past decade, linked to the arrival of over 1.2 million immigrants from the former Soviet Union – a substantial proportion of whom do not identify as Jews, even though they have some Jewish ancestry.[45] In August 2007, Israeli police broke up a cell in Petah Tikva made up of eight young immigrants from the former Soviet Union, which had had been attacking religious Jews, foreign workers and gays; and which had been vandalizing synogogues with Nazi images.[46][47][48]

The Soviet Union-born neo-Nazis[49] are reported to operate in cities across Israel, and have been described as having little connection to Jewish heritage, and of being influenced by the rise of neo-Nazism and anti-Semitism in Europe.[46][47] Widely publicized arrests have led to a call to reform the Law of Return to permit the revocation of Israeli citizenship for – and the subsequent deportation of – neo-Nazis.[48][47]

Russia

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Further information: Racism in modern Russia

The post-Soviet era has seen the rise of a variety of extreme nationalist movements in Russia, some of which are openly neo-fascist or neo-Nazi. Neo-Nazi groups in Russia are characterized by racism, antisemitism and extreme xenophobia towards non-Russians.

Russian neo-Nazi organizations have generally defined themselves as standing outside of the political process, disdaining the electoral system and advocating the overthrow of the government by force. Their ideology has centered on defending Russian national identity against what they perceive as a takeover by minority groups such as Jews, Caucasian (whether Orthodox or Muslim) and Central Asian immigrants as well as muslim Russians. Dark skinned Russians are often subject to racial abuse, regardless of religious affliation. Cleansing the nation by killing or expelling Jews and also dark- skinned immigrants from other parts of the country as well as former countries of the USSR has been a generally accepted goal for Russian neo-Nazis. Their ideology became epitomized in the slogan "Russia for the Russians", a catchphrase also adopted by less extreme factions. Russian neo-Nazis have generally not outlined discernible economic programs. They have openly admired and imitated the German Nazis and Adolf Hitler, and Hitler's book Mein Kampf stood high on their reading list. The most prominent organization, Russian National Union, led by Aleksandr Barkashov, adopted a three-ray Swastika as its emblem (the German Nazi swastika can be thought of consisting of two rays; the Z shaped segments).

Social roots

The collapse of the Soviet economic system in the early 1990s caused great economic and social problems, including widespread unemployment and poverty. Several far right paramilitary organizations were able to tap into popular discontent, particularly among the marginalized, lesser educated, and habitually unemployed youth. Of the three major age groups – youths, adults, and the elderly – youths may have been hit the hardest. The elderly suffered due to inadequate (or unpaid) pensions, but they found effective political representation in the Communists, and generally had their concerns addressed through better budget allocations. Adults, although often suffering financially and psychologically due to job losses, were generally able to find new sources of income. Moreover, Soviet-era indoctrination into the ideals of egalitarianism predisposed most adults against the message of right-wing extremists. Younger Russians were much less likely to have such inclinations.

Activities

Russian neo-Nazis have made it an explicit goal to take over the country by force, and have put serious effort into preparing for this. Paramilitary organizations operating under the guise of sports clubs have trained their members in squad tactics and weapons handling. They have stockpiled and used weapons, often illegally. Reputedly, many were interested in martial arts and unarmed combat, and have organized realistic hand to hand combat classes. Russian neo-Nazis' most notable action so far was their participation in the armed defense of the Supreme Soviet building against government forces during the standoff between Boris Yeltsin and the Communist-dominated parliament in 1993.[verification needed]

On August 15, 2007, Russian authorities arrested a student for allegedly posting a video on the Internet which appears to show two Muslim, migrant workers being beheaded in front of a red and black Swastika flag.[50] Alexander Verkhovsky, the head of a Moscow-based center that monitors hate crime in Russia, said, "It looks like this is the real thing. The killing is genuine...There are similar videos from the Chechen war. But this is the first time the killing appears to have been done intentionally."[51] A Russian neo-Nazi group called the National Socialists of Russia claimed responsibility for the murders.

Serbia

See also: Neo-Nazism in Serbia

There are several neo-Nazi groups in Serbia. Neo-Nazism in Serbia appeared in the 1990s during the Yugoslav wars.[citation needed] Before the breakup of Yugoslavia, neo-Nazism was strictly forbidden and very unpopular.[citation needed] Although neo-Nazism in Germany mostly focuses on racial and political intolerance, neo-Nazism in Serbia is mostly based on national and religious factors.[52] Nacionalni stroj (National Alignment), a neo-Nazi organization from the Vojvodina region, orchestrated several incidents in 2005. Charges were laid against 18 of the leading members in late 2005, and each of them faced up to eight years in prison.[53] The group was still active in 2007, as was demonstrated by a display of religious hatred.[54]

Blood and Honour has a branch in Serbia, where it is called Krv i čast. Its website claims that the group intends "to propagate revolutionary idea of National Socialism without compromise. Also, the intention of Serbian Blood and Honour Division is to motivate all NS followers to radical activities and not only to passive observing or listening to the music."[55] Since 2001, this organization, with chapters in several Serbian cities, organized several memorial concerts on the anniversary of Adolf Hitler's birth.[56][57]

United States

There are a number of small neo-Nazi groups in the United States today. The earliest example of this ideological tendency can be traced back to the 1920s and the formation of a domestic U.S. Nazi Party. This organization merged with Free Society of Teutonia to form the German-American Bund. The German-American Bund and similar groups achieved limited popularity in the 1930s (at one point staging a rally with over 20,000 people), but rapidly faded with the onset of World War II. The groups either disbanded or were dismantled by force of law (such as the 1942 sedition trial) during the war period. After the war, new organizations formed, with varying degrees of support for Nazi principles.

In 1959, the first explicitly postwar American neo-Nazi group was founded by George Lincoln Rockwell. The American Nazi Party achieved high-profile coverage in the press through their public demonstrations.[58]

Organizations dedicated to monitoring American neo-Nazi activities include the Anti-Defamation League and Southern Poverty Law Center. While a small minority of American neo-Nazis draw public attention, most operate underground, so they can recruit, organize and raise funds without interference or harassment. The American correctional system houses many white supremacist and neo-Nazi prison gangs, and often white prisoners join those gangs for protection.[citation needed]

The First Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees freedom of speech, which allows political organizations great latitude in expressing Nazi, racist, and anti-Semitic views. A First Amendment landmark was the "Skokie Affair", in which neo-Nazis threatened to march in a predominantly Jewish suburb of Chicago. The march never took place in Skokie, but the court ruling allowed the neo-Nazis to stage a series of demonstrations in the Chicago area. In addition to targeting Jews and African Americans, neo-Nazi groups are known to harass and attack Asian Americans, Latinos, Arab Americans, Native Americans, homosexuals, Catholics[citation needed] and people with different political or religious opinions. American neo-Nazi groups often operate websites, occasionally stage public demonstrations, and maintain ties to groups in Europe and elsewhere.[59]

Members of The Order were convicted of crimes such as racketeering, conspiracy, violating civil rights and sedition. Matthew F. Hale of the World Church of the Creator was imprisoned for soliciting the murder of a federal judge. Aryan Nations lost a $6.2 million dollar lawsuit after Aryan Nations members opened fire on a passing vehicle. Aryan Nations has since lost its headquarters and paramilitary training grounds, and has split into three separate organizations.[citation needed]

Symbolism

Sun wheel
Sun wheel

Many Neo-Nazi groups use the sun wheel to represent the Aryan race because this symbol was used by the Indo-Europeans in ancient times as far back as the 2nd millennium BC.

Neo-Nazi organizations

The Americas

Scandinavia

United Kingdom

Other European countries

Other continents

Neo-Nazi bands

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b Lee McGowan (2002). The Radical Right in Germany: 1870 to the Present. Pearson Education, pp. 9, 178. ISBN 0582291933. OCLC 49785551. 
  2. ^ Peter Vogelsang & Brian B. M. Larsen (2002). "Neo-Nazism" (in English). The Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies. Retrieved on 2007-12-08. "Neo-Nazism is the name for a modern offshoot of Nazism. It is a radically right-wing ideology, whose main characteristics are extreme nationalism and violent xenophobia. Neo-Nazism is, as the word suggests, a modern version of Nazism. In general, it is an incoherent right-extremist ideology, which is characterised by ‘borrowing’ many of the elements that constituted traditional Nazism."
  3. ^ Ondřej Cakl & Klára Kalibová (2002). "Neo-Nazism" (in English). Faculty of Humanities at Charles University in Prague, Department of Civil Society Studies. Retrieved on 2007-12-08. "Neo-Nazism: An ideology which draws upon the legacy of the Nazi Third Reich, the main pillars of which are comprised of an admiration for Adolf Hitler, aggressive nationalism (“nothing but the nation”), and hatred of Jews, foreigners, ethnic minorities, homosexuals and everyone who is different in some way."
  4. ^ Brigitte Bailer-Galanda; Wolfgang Neugebauer. "Right-Wing Extremism in Austria: History, Organisations, Ideology" (in English). "Right-wing extremism can be equated neither with National Socialism nor with neo-Fascism or neo-Nazism. Neo-Nazism, a legal term, is understood as the attempt to propagate, in direct defiance of the law (Verbotsgesetz), Nazi ideology or measures such as the denial, playing-down, approval or justification of Nazi mass murder, especially the Holocaust."
  5. ^ a b Martin Frost. "Neo Nazism". "The term neo-Nazism is used to refer to any social or political movement seeking to revive National Socialism or a form of Fascism, and which postdates the Second World War. Often, especially internationally, those who are part of such movements do not use the term to describe themselves."
  6. ^ Lee, Martin A. 1997. The Beast Reawakens. Boston: Little, Brown and Co, pp. 85-118, 214-234, 277-281, 287-330, 333-378. On Volk concept," and a discussion of ethnonationalist integralism, see pp. 215-218.
  7. ^ Hearst, Ernest, Chip Berlet, and Jack Porter. "Neo-Nazism." Encyclopaedia Judaica. Eds. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik. Vol. 15. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007. 74-82. 22 vols. Thomson Gale.
  8. ^ Police: Israeli neo-Nazi ring busted, Associated Press, September 9, 2007
  9. ^ Israeli 'neo-Nazi gang' arrested BBC News. September 9, 2007
  10. ^ George Michael. Confronting Right Wing Extremism and Terrorism in the USA. Routledge, 2003. P. 67
  11. ^ Jeffrey Kaplan. Encyclopedia of White Power: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right. Rowman Altamira, 2000. pp 98-99.
  12. ^ Ronald Gottesman, Editor in Chief. Violence in America: An Encyclopedia. Scribner, 1999
  13. ^ Tyler Bridge. The Rise of David Duke. University Press of Mississippi, 1994
  14. ^ Dawidowicz, Lucy (1986). The War Against The Jews, 1933–1945 (in English). New York: Bantam Books, [page # needed]. ISBN 055334532X. OCLC 26064567. 
  15. ^ Benz, Wolfgang (1991). Dimension des Volksmords: Die Zahl der Jüdischen Opfer des Nationalsozialismus (in German). München: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, [page # needed]. ISBN 3423046902. OCLC 39086159. 
  16. ^ Gutman, Israel; Rāšût haz-Zîk Yād wa-Šēm (1990). Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (in English). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, [page # needed]. ISBN 0028971639. OCLC 20594356. 
  17. ^ Hilberg, Raul (1985). The Destruction of the European Jews (in English). New York: Holmes & Meier, [page # needed]. ISBN 084190832X. OCLC 9541865. 
  18. ^ Yisrael Gutman, Michael Berenbaum; Raul Hilberg, Franciszek Piper, Yehuda Bauer (1998). Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp (in English). Bloomington: Published in association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, D.C. [by] Indiana University Press, pp. 71. ISBN 025320884X. OCLC 39132480. 
  19. ^ Gilbert, Martin (1993). Atlas of the Holocaust (in English). New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., [page # needed]. ISBN 0688123643. OCLC 26858330. 
  20. ^ Brigitte Bailer-Galanda/Wolfgang Neugebauer. (1996). 'Incorrigibly Right - Right-Wing Extremists, "Revisionists" and Anti-Semites in Austrian Politics Today'. Vienna-New York.
  21. ^ De nouvelles découvertes, La Libre Belgique, 8 September 2006 (French)
  22. ^ Mandats d'arrêts confirmés pour les néo-nazis, Le Soir, 13 September 2006 (French)
  23. ^ Les néonazis voulaient déstabiliser le pays, Le Soir, Jeudi 7 septembre 2006 (French)
  24. ^ Un groupe terroriste néonazi démantelé, Le Nouvel Observateur, 8 septembre 2006 (French)
  25. ^ La Belgique démantèle un groupe néonazi préparant des attentats, Le Monde, 7 septembre 2006 (French)
  26. ^ Des militaires néonazis voulaient commettre des attentats, RTL Belgique, 8 septembre 2006 (French)
  27. ^ Des militaires néonazis voulaient déstabiliser la Belgique par des attentats, AFP, 08/09/06, 07h12 (French)
  28. ^ La Belgique découvre, stupéfaite, un complot néonazi au sein de son armée, AFP, 08/09/06, 12h01. (French)
  29. ^ Un réseau terroriste de militaires néonazis démantelé en Belgique, Le Monde, September 8, 2006 (French)
  30. ^ Novi List, Manipulation of Bleiburg, by Zarko PUHOVSKI, May 22, 2004, Patriotic Braying, by Zarko PUHOVSKI, May 29, 2004, Ethnic Dirtying Of Political Landscape, by Zarko PUHOVSKI, March 6, 2004
  31. ^ Croatia tries to shed light on dark chapter in its history - Europe - International Herald Tribune
  32. ^ Croatia's Willingness To Tolerate Fascist Legacy Worries Many
  33. ^ SLOBODNA DALMACIJA, ČETVRTAK 21. prosinca 2000. - novosti
  34. ^ BBC NEWS | Europe | Croatia erases 'fascist' tributes
  35. ^ 71 28.6.2006 Zakon o izmjenama i dopunama Kaznenog zakona
  36. ^ Wiesenthal Center Welcomes Opening of Investigation by Austrian Authorities of the Display of Fascist Ustasha Symbols at Recent Bleiburg Gathering [1]
  37. ^ Nazi hunter raps 'fascist' Croatian rock concert [2]
  38. ^ Jews slam Croatia's failure to condemn 'Nazi' concert [3]
  39. ^ Stratégies et pratiques du mouvement nationaliste-révolutionnaire français : départs, desseins et destin d'Unité Radicale (1989-2002), Le Banquet, n°19, 2004 (French)
  40. ^ http://www.bankier.pl/wiadomosc/Loecknitz-nie-chce-Polakow-1699216.html] Pole Raus
  41. ^ Verfassungsschutz (Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution)
  42. ^ Faschismus rund um den Bodensee (German)
  43. ^ Statistisches Landesamt des Freistaates Sachsen - Wahlen / Volksentscheide
  44. ^ Michas, Takis;"Unholy Alliance", Texas A&M University Press: Eastern European Studies (College Station, Tex.) pp. 22 [4]
  45. ^ Rising anti-Semitism in Israel meets state’s blind eye. The News (Pakistan). Sunday, April 22, 2007.
  46. ^ a b "Israeli 'neo-Nazi gang' arrested", BBC (9 September 2007). 
  47. ^ a b c Martin Asser (10 September 2007). "Israeli anger over 'Nazi' group", BBC. 
  48. ^ a b Aron Heller (September 9, 2007). "Police Break Up Israeli Neo-Nazi Ring", Associated Press. 
  49. ^ BBC NEWS | Middle East | Israeli neo-Nazi suspects charged
  50. ^ BBC NEWS | Europe | Russian held over 'deaths' video
  51. ^ Luke Harding (2007-08-16). "Student arrested over Russian neo-Nazi 'execution' video". The Guardian. Retrieved on 2007-08-16.
  52. ^ Neonacizam, fašizam i desni ekstremizam u Nemačkoj i Srbiji: sličnosti i razlike (in Serbian), centar za nove medije_kuda.org
  53. ^ "Nacionalni stroj" pred sudom, BBC Serbian.com, January 9, 2006
  54. ^ Serbia: Neo-Nazi Vandals Post Message on Adventist Church, Adventist News Network, July 12, 2007
  55. ^ Blood and Honour, official website
  56. ^ "Bela nadmoć" i "Krv i čast", Patriot Online
  57. ^ Hitlerjugend sa gitarama, IMC Beograd, June 25, 2005
  58. ^ Jeffrey Kaplan. Encyclopedia of White Power: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right. Rowman Altamira, 2000. pp 1-3.
  59. ^ George Michael, The Enemy of My Enemy: The Alarming Convergence of Militant Islam and the Extreme Right, Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006
  60. ^ Partido Nuevo Triunfo - Orden Nacional

Bibliography

Primary sources

Academic surveys

External links


Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Nazism"
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