Water supply and sanitation in Pakistan

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Pakistan: Water and Sanitation
Data
Water coverage (broad definition) 91% (2004)[1]
Sanitation coverage (broad definition) 59% (2004)[1]
Continuity of supply (%) Mostly intermittent in urban areas[2]
Average urban water use (l/c/d) Karachi: 197 (2001)[3]
Average urban water tariff (US$/m³) Karachi: 0.13[4][5]
Share of household metering Low[2]
Annual investment in WSS Scheduled: US$2.66 per capita (2005-2010)[6][7][8]
Share of self-financing by utilities Low[5]
Share of tax-financing n/a
Share of external financing n/a
Institutions
Decentralization to municipalities Yes, since 2001
National water and sanitation company None
Water and sanitation regulator None
Responsibility for policy setting Ministry of Environment and provincial governments
Sector law None
Number of urban service providers n/a
Number of rural service providers n/a

Water supply and sanitation in Pakistan has made significant progress concerning coverage.[9] However, the sector still faces major challenges concerning the quality of the services. Water supply is mostly intermittent in urban areas. Poor drinking water quality leads to major outbreaks of waterborne diseases and wastewater treatment is almost non-existent.[10] In addition, many service providers do not even cover the costs of operation and maintenance due to low tariffs and poor efficiency.[5] Consequently, the sector strongly depends on funding from Pakistani and external sources.[11]

These problems are partly a result of the focus on irrigation, which prevailed in the Pakistani water policy for decades. This has changed at least since the Medium Term Development Framework 2005-2010 was passed. The framework provides for about US$404 million per year for water supply and sanitation and is accompanied by several policy documents with the objective to notably improve water and sanitation coverage and quality.[7][12] Pakistan is home of the Orangi Pilot Project, a successful grassroots approach which has led to increased sanitation in peri-urban areas.[13]

Contents

[edit] Access

In Pakistan, according to the Joint Monitoring Program of the World Health Organization and UNICEF, access in Pakistan to an improved water source increased from 83% in 1990 to 91% in 2004. In the same time, improved sanitation coverage increased from 37% to 59% (see table 1).[1]

Table 1: Access to Water and Sanitation in Pakistan (2004)[1]
Urban
(34% of the population)		 Rural
(66% of the population)		 Total
Water Broad definition 96% 89% 91%
House connections 49% 15% 27%
Sanitation Broad definition 92% 41% 59%
Sewerage 40% 6% 18%

Given these figures, the MDGs concerning water and sanitation, which give the target of halving the share of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015, compared to 1990 are very likely to be reached. The United Nations Development Programme assumes that concerning urban and rural water supply as well as urban sanitation, the targets will be achieved prematurely, whereas rural sanitation progress is classified to be "on track".[14] However, the Government of Pakistan relies on other figures. According to the federal government, in 2005 66% of the total population had access to an improved water source, defined as pipe and hand pump water.[15]

According to the National Drinking Water Policy (NDWP), Pakistan's goal is to provide universal access to drinking water in an equitable, efficient and sustainable manner by 2020.[16] At the same time, the National Sanitation Policy aims to meet the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) concerning sanitation by 2015 and to serve the total population with improved sanitation by 2025.[17]

[edit] Service quality

Water supply service quality is often inappropriate in Pakistan. One document criticizes the MDG's methodology of only taking into account coverage figures, without attention to adequate service quality, which may not be given in all cases.[9]

[edit] Continuity of supply

Intermittent water supply is common urban areas. For Pakistani cities, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) indicates continuity rates of 1 to 10 hours (Karachi), 11 to 15 hours (Rawalpindi) and 16 to 23 hours (Lahore) per day.[4][18] During a 2005 workshop, similar figures were reported except for Rawalpindi (see Table 3)[19]. Consequently, consumers use on-site storage mechanisms like ground or roof tanks, or they purchase water from lorry tankers or use shallow wells and rivers. Many privately operated lorry tankers are licensed by water utilities and benefit from the discontinuous water supply.[10]

Table 2: Hours of water supply per day in major Pakistani cities[19]
Karachi Lahore Faisalabad Rawalpindi Multan Peshawar
4 17 8 8 8 9

[edit] Drinking water quality

Generally, water pressure is low in Pakistani supply systems. Together with leaky pipes, this has led to infiltration of contaminated water. As a result of sewage and industrial waste, which leaked into drinking water through damaged pipes, major outbreaks of waterborne disease epidemics swept the cities of Faisalabad, Karachi, Lahore and Peshawar in 2006.[10] Estimates indicate that each year, more than three million Pakistanis become infected with waterborne diseases.[20]

In several areas, increased arsenic, nitrate and fluoride contamination was detected in drinking water.[21] The National Drinking Water Policy calls for safe water supply to the entire population by 2020.[22] The situation may improve due to the Clean Drinking Water for All Programme (see below).[23]

[edit] Wastewater treatment

The Pakistani Ministry of Water and Power reported in 2002 that only 1% of the domestic and industrial wastewater receives treatment.[24] According to the Pakistan Water Situational Analysis, there are three wastewater treatment plants in Islamabad, of which only one is functional. Karachi has two trickling filters, where effluents generally receive screening and sedimentation. Lahore has some screening and grit removal systems, but they are hardly functional. In Faisalabad, there is a wastewater treatment plant, in which wastewater receives primary treatment. In rural areas, wastewater treatment is nonexistent, leading to pollution of surface and groundwater.[25]

[edit] History and recent developments

[edit] History

After Pakistan's independence in 1947, national water policies were defined in the government's five-year plans, which were replaced by a ten-year plan in 2001. Given the economic impact of the agricultural sector in the country, the plans were mainly focused on irrigation instead of rural and urban water supply. In the particular cases, the first and second five-year plans emphasized the increasing application of water for increasing productivity and control of waterlogging and salinity, which together with water conservation continued to be an element of the third and fourth five-year plans. The fifth, sixth and seventh plans dealt with water management, the reduction of water losses and increased user participation in the improvement of watercourses.[26] The eighth and last plan provided for the formation of farmer organizations and decentralization of water management through Area Water Boards.[27] However, the plans have not always been implemented accordingly.[28]

The existing water supply and sanitation facilities are mostly the product of a top-down approach, usually constructed by the Public Health Engineering Departments (PHEDs) and in many cases expensive and difficult to maintain for local communities. Hygiene education and user participation were neglected until 1992, when the federal government launched the Social Action Plan, which suggested various policy reforms concerning water supply and sanitation. This included user participation, hygiene promotion and low-cost technologies.[29]

[edit] Recent developments

Until the 21st century, Pakistani water sector policies were mainly focused on water resources and irrigation.[30] This has changed with the National Drinking Water Policy (NDWP), the National Sanitation Policy (NSP) and the Clean Drinking Water for All Programme, which were prepared by the Ministry of Environment as integral parts of the Medium Term Development Framework (MTDF) 2005-2010.[31] The MTDF provides about US$2 billion (120 billion rupee) for water and sanitation schemes.[7][6] In addition, a Safe Drinking Water Act will be adopted under the MTDF to ensure compliance with the Pakistan Drinking Water Quality Standards.[32] A major shift of sector responsibility took place under the 2001 Local Government Ordinance.[33]

[edit] Local Government Ordinance

See also: Subdivisions of Pakistan

Until the 2001 Local Government Ordinance (LGO), the PHED has been responsible for the development and maintenance of water and sanitation services in rural areas, whereas in urban areas services were provided by Development Authorities and Water and Sanitation Authorities (WASAs). Under the LGO, three tiers of local governments were created, namely District, Tehsil and Union Councils. The responsibility for water supply and sanitation was devolved to Tehsil Municipal Administrations (TMAs), the second-lowest tier of local government in Pakistan, comparable to counties or sub-districts. The PHED was supposed to be merged into the Provincial Local Government Department. The staff was supposed to be devolved at the TMA level.

However it should be noted that the decentralization has not been implemented in all areas.[31][34] In 2008, it was reported that PHEDs were still active in water supply development, operation and maintenance, particularly in areas where the schemes spread across more than one tehsil. In those cases, the PHEDs usually develop supply-driven schemes with little or no participation of TMAs. In addition, the devolution took place differently in all provinces. According to a 2003 document, the PHED remains fully functional in the Balochistan Province and in the Punjab Province, local government powers were recentralized.[33]

[edit] National Drinking Water Policy (NDWP)

In November 2007, the Ministry of Environment issued a draft form of the NDWP. It has been sent to all Pakistani provinces to solicit their comments and views. A main objective is a clearer segregation between the functions of service provision and regulation. The draft NDWP provides for an equitable provision of safe drinking water to the entire Pakistani population by 2020, including the poor and vulnerable at an affordable cost. The federal state is made responsible for ensuring the provision. The reduction of mortality and morbidity caused by waterborne diseases is included. Under the draft document, the right to water for drinking precedes all other purposes, like industrial or agricultural water use. Women are recognized as main actors of domestic water supply, and their active participation in the sector is ensured by the NDWP. In accordance with the LGO, the document highlights the responsibility of local governments to provide drinking water.

The guidelines of the draft include among others an increased access through the construction and rehabilitation of drinking water systems, water treatment as an integral part of water supply systems in order to improve drinking water quality, increased user participation and private sector participation and the promotion of a sector-wide approach for the water and sanitation sector. The policy is expected to be reviewed and updated every five years to examine its implementation and efficacy and to adapt it to the changing situation in the country.[35]

[edit] National Sanitation Policy (NSP)

The NSP, approved by the federal government in 2006,[36] is focused on the safe disposal of excreta through the use of latrines, the creation of an open defecation free environment, safe disposal of liquid and solid waste and the promotion of health and hygiene practices. In order to support the implementation of the guidelines, effective institutional and financial frameworks are envisaged. Sanitation programs are linked with environment, housing, water and regional planning policies and programs. Furthermore, the federal government provides incentives for the implementation of the NSP in the form of rewards for open defecation-free tehsils/towns, 100% sanitation coverage tehsils/towns, the cleanest tehsils/towns and the cleanest industrial estates or clusters.

The roles and responsibilities of all stakeholders are accepted and coordinated. This includes government institutions, the private sector, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), Community-Based Organizations (CBOs), communities, individual households and the electronic and print media. The policy officially promotes the grassroots concept of community-led total sanitation (CLTS) in smaller communities with less than 1,000 inhabitants. In larger communities, the NSP provides for the component sharing model, under which sewage and wastewater treatment facilities are provided by the communities in the case that local government developed disposal is not available.[37]

[edit] Clean Drinking Water for All Programme

The Clean Drinking Water for All Programme together with the Clean Drinking Water Initiative aim to improve the quality of drinking water. Under both, water treatment facilities are to be constructed. The US$8.2 million Clean Drinking Water Initiative provides for the construction of 445 water purification plants of 2,000 gallons per day in all Pakistani tehsils.

The Clean Drinking Water for All Programme by the Federal Government aims at delivering one filter plant to each Pakistani Union Council. The plants are expected to be maintained through contracting out for three subsequent years. It is estimated that one water filtration plant will serve 2-20% of each Union Council's population, which on average have 20,000 inhabitants. Altogether, under the US$168 million programme, the establishment of 6,035 purification plants with capacities of 500, 1,000 and 2,000 gallons per day is planned.[7][38]

[edit] Responsibility for water supply and sanitation

Map of Pakistan

[edit] Policy and regulation

Drinking water and sanitation policy is the constitutional responsibility of provincial governments. However, the federal government is involved in poliy development and guidelines setting, mostly through the Ministry of Environment. There is no independent regulatory agency in the sector.[39]

The Ministry of Health is expected to set water quality standards and monitor drinking water quality in the country. Poor coordination with between the ministry and other authorities have been reported. The Health Services Academy under the Ministry of Health published Quality Drinking Water Standards for Pakistan in May 2007.[40] It should be noted that these standards were not officially implemented and monitored in 2008.

[edit] Service provision

Since the 2001 Local Government Ordinance, water supply and sanitation services are expected to be delivered by the newly created Tehsil Municipal Administrations (TMAs) (see above). At the same time, responsibilities for coordination and joint implementation across TMAs were devolved to District Governments, including City District Governments in the largest cities and Common Districts. However, as indicated above constant challenges in the transition period were reported and PHEDs remain active in many regions.[29]

In urban areas, local governments have formed public sector water boards or, in the case of the City District Governments, a total of seven Water and Sanitation Agencies (WASAs).[41] In Karachi, the Karachi Water and Sewerage Board (KWSB) under the local government provides the services.[42]

There is little participation of private companies. However, there have been a few service contracts with the private sector. This can partly be explained by low cost recovery in the sector.[43] NGOs are particularly active in sanitation, and have reached some notable achievements.[44]

Under the National Drinking Water and Sanitation Policies, the participation of the private sector as well as NGOs is encouraged.[45][46]

[edit] Orangi Pilot Project

Main article: Orangi Pilot Project

Orangi is a large informal low-income settlement located in Karachi and place of a user participation success story. The Orangi Pilot Project (OPP) was initiated by an NGO under Dr. Akhtar Hameed Khan in 1980 in order to improve the poor sanitation conditions through a low-cost sanitation program with active user participation. A main feature of the project is the component sharing model. The first component is responsibility of the communities, which receive technical assistance. The community develops and constructs primary household sanitary latrines, underground sewers and neighborhood collector sewers. Those are connected to main sewers and treatment plants, which form the second component and are constructed with public funds. The OPP was very successful and about 100,000 households have developed their own sanitation systems in Orangi. The project was replicated by NGOs and CBOs in other Pakistani cities.[13][47] The component sharing model is encouraged under the 2006 National Sanitation Policy.[48]

[edit] Lodhran Pilot Project

Inspired by the OPP, a pilot project emerged in Lodhran District in 1999. The project follows a low cost, community owned rural sanitation model based on a participatory approach. In 2004, the Lodhran Pilot Project (LPP) received a US$1.1 million grant by the World Bank-administered Japan Social Development Fund (JSDF) to expand the model in 100 villages in Southern Punjab. Under the grant, TMAs receive technical assistance concerning public private partnerships, training and capacity building and communication.[49][50]

[edit] Community-led total sanitation (CLTS)

See also: Community-led total sanitation

In Pakistan, the concept of Community-led total sanitation (CLTS) was first introduced as a pilot project in Mardan District in the North West Frontier Province in 2003. A main objective of the concept is to create open defecation free villages through behavioral change in the whole community, rather than to construct sanitation facilities for individual households. Since then, CLTS has spread rapidly in the whole country and became a main feature of the National Sanitation Policy, which provides financial rewards for defined outcomes. Development agencies began to link their funding and incentives to theopen defecation free status. For example, the Khushal Pakistan Fund has allocated about US$200 million (12 billion Pakistani rupees[51]) to community infrastructure projects in open defecation free communities.

In addition, several organizations like Plan Pakistan and WaterAid have integrated CLTS in their strategies and projects. CLTS projects were active in all four Pakistani regions in 2007. NGOs were implementing CLTS in about 20 districts in 2008. At the same time, more than 130 defecation free villages already existed in Pakistan.[52]

[edit] Efficiency

There is little evidence concerning efficiency in the Pakistani water supply and sanitation sector. However, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) prepared a document, which includes the respective data for the cities of Rawalpindi, Karachi and Lahore.[4] Furthermore, data from six major cities were reported during a 2005 workshop in Karachi.[19]

[edit] Non-revenue water

The share of non-revenue water (NRW), water which is produced but not billed due to several reasons like leakage and illegal connections is estimated at 35% in urban areas.[53] The ADB reported an amount of 30% NRW in Rawalpindi and Karachi, and 42% in Lahore.[18] As indicated in table 3, officials from major Pakistani cities reported a higher share of NRW during a 2005 workshop, ranging from 40% to 50%.[19] There is no agreement on appropriate levels of NRW among professionals. However, Tynan and Kingdom propose a best practice target of 23% in developing countries.[54]

[edit] Labor productivity

There are no updated and precise figures for labor productivity, measured in employees per 1,000 connections. However, the Ministry of Power and Environment indicated a poor performance in the country's major cities.[55] The ADB found an average of 5.6 employees per 1,000 connections in Karachi. In Lahore and Rawalpindi, labor productivity is indicated lower at 9.5 and 12.7 employees per 1,000 connections, respectively.[18] At the 2005 workshop, between 6 and 27 employees per 1,000 connections in major cities were reported (see table 3).[56] Tynan and Kingdom propose a best practice target of 5 employees per 1,000 connections in developing countries. However it should be mentioned that equally to NRW, this target is a suggestion of the authors, which is not established as official best practice target among professionals.[54][broken footnote]

Table 3: Indicators of efficiency in major Pakistani cities[19]
Karachi Lahore Faisalabad Rawalpindi Multan Peshawar
NRW 45% 40% 40% 45% 40% 50%
Staff per 1,000 connections 6 12 10 11 27 14

[edit] Financial aspects

[edit] Tariffs and cost recovery

Low tariffs, together with poor collection efficiency and overstaffing cause that many urban utilities do not cover the costs for operation and maintenance (O&M). The ADB found typical domestic tariffs of US$0.13 per m³ in Karachi and US$0.25 in Lahore (fixed charges excluded).[4][5] The Ministry of Power and Water reported in 2002 that in smaller cities and towns part of the O&M costs had been financed with local taxes until recently.[57] The National Drinking Water Policy calls for appropriate user charges, increased cost recovery and cross subsidies. Tariffs are supposed to become differentiated according to the income situation of the respective city and town areas.[58]

[edit] Investment and financing

The sector strongly depends on internal and external financing. The Ministry of Power and Water reported in 2002 that in recent years, 49% of the total new investments in the water sector had been financed by external loans and 43% by the government.[59] The MTDF recognizes that with 0.25% of its total GDP, Pakistan's investment in the water supply and sanitation sector is inadequate and provides for US$2 billion (120 billion rupee) or US$404 million per year for the sector from 2005 to 2010,[7] half of which is to be paid by the federal and provincial governments, including the construction and rehabilitation of water supply schemes in urban and rural areas and wastewater treatment plants in provincial capitals. The other half is expected to be provided by the private sector and includes water supply systems, sewerage networks and wastewater treatment as part of new housing schemes in cities and towns.[60]

[edit] External cooperation

The sector receives much support from development partners, among them the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC).

[edit] Asian Development Bank

In December 2008 the Asian Development Bank (ADB) approved a $300 million loan for the Sindh Cities Improvement Investment Program, which aims at improving water supply, wastewater, and solid waste management infrastructure in more than 20 secondary cities in the Province of Sindh with more than six million inhabitants. The loan, in the form of a multitranche financing facility (MFF), will also support urban sector reforms - such as the establishment of local government-owned urban services corporations - and capacity development. The first tranche of $38 million (2009–2012) targets the northern Sindh cities of Sukkur, New Sukkur, Rohri, Khairpur, Shikarpur and Larkana.

Urban services in secondary cities in Sindh fall far short of targets for quality, continuity, and coverage. Only about half the urban population of Sindh, outside of Karachi, has piped water. Even then, the water quality is poor and often flows for only two to four hours a day. Sanitary drainage is extremely limited and sewer lines are often blocked. No sanitary landfills exist, which leads to solid waste being disposed of by burning or illegal dumping in open spaces or drainage channels, causing blockage and pollution.[61]

The ADB also financed the Punjab Community Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project with US$50 million, which was active in rural villages in all districts of the Punjab province from 2003 until the end of 2007. As a result, about 2.5 million additional people in 778 villages were provided with water supply and sanitation facilities with full cost recovery. CBOs maintain and operate the schemes and charge the users. Tehsil municipal administrations were strengthened and received training under the project. In addition, communities received training in health and hygiene practices and the construction of latrines. The project also established a link between the beneficiary communities and micro finance institutions, which have disbursed about US$4 million to about 15,000 borrowers in 617 communities.[62]

[edit] Japan Bank for International Cooperation

Under the Metropolitan Water Supply Project (Khanpur I), implemented between 1994 and 2000, the JBIC contributed to the improvement of water supply in the Islamabad Metropolitan Area, including Rawalpindi. The total amount disbursed was US$109 million (12,442 million Yen).[63] Among other things, water purification facilities with a capacity of 281,000 m³ per day, water supply facilities and water storage facilities were constructed to meet the increasing demand for water supply.[64]

[edit] World Bank

[edit] Second Karachi Water Supply

Under the second Karachi Water Supply Project, the World Bank contributed with US$92 million to increase water supply coverage and sanitation in Karachi and to improve operation, management and financial viability of the Karachi Water and Sewerage Board (KWSB). The project started in 1993 and provided for the construction of a canal to bring water from the Indus River, pumping stations, water and wastewater treatment facilities. In low income areas, small bore sewers were to be built. The operational efficiency of KWSB was expected to improve through technical assistance by the World Bank and increased cost reduction measures, e.g. reduction of water losses.[65]

[edit] Rural Water Supply & Sanitation Project

The World Bank contributed with US$137 million to the Rural Water Supply & Sanitation Project, which was active from 1991 to 2000 in the self-governing Pakistani state of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. The main objectives of the project were to improve rural productivity and health and reduce poverty and deprivation. The components of the project included the construction and rehabilitation of water supply and sanitation schemes, institutional strengthening and training, latrine construction materials accompanied by health education and promotion, water resources and sanitation studies and private sector support.[66]

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b c d Based on:
    • Pakistan Integrated Household Survey. 1996/1997. 
    • Pakistan Integrated Household Survey. 2001/2002. 
    • Pakistan National Nutrition Survey. 2002. 
    • World Health Organization (2003). World Health Survey. and other documents.
  2. ^ a b Water and Sanitation Program (August 2004). Managing Karachi's water supply and sanitation services: lessons from a workshop. http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/11/28/000160016_20051128162902/Rendered/PDF/344430PK0Karachi0water0supply.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-06-04. , p. 4
  3. ^ Asian Development Bank (January 2004). Water in Asian Cities - Utilities Performance and Civil Society Views. ISBN 971-561-524-4. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/Water_for_All_Series/Water_Asian_Cities/water_asian_cities.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-06-05. , p. 47
  4. ^ a b c d The ADB abstracted the figures from unaudited data, collected from utilities for the SAWUN Benchmarking Database; see: Bridges, Geoff; Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2007). Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. Country Paper Pakistan. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/AWDO/2007/cr08.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. , p. 17
  5. ^ a b c d Bridges, Geoff; Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2007). Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. Country Paper Pakistan. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/AWDO/2007/cr08.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. , p. 12-13
  6. ^ a b Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Planning and Development (2004). Medium Term Development Framework 2005-10. Section 10: Water and Sanitation. Islamabad. http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/ministries/planninganddevelopment-ministry/mtdf/10-Water%20and%20Sanitation/10-Water%20&%20Sanitation.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. , section 10.7.
  7. ^ a b c d e 1 Pakistani Rupee = US$0.01684 (2004-12-31); source: http://oanda.com
  8. ^ Bangladesh had 152,061,300 inhabitants in 2004; source: http://devdata.worldbank.org/query/
  9. ^ a b Bridges, Geoff; Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2007). Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. Country Paper Pakistan. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/AWDO/2007/cr08.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. , p. 11
  10. ^ a b c Bridges, Geoff; Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2007). Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. Country Paper Pakistan. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/AWDO/2007/cr08.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. , p. 9
  11. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Water and Power (October 2002). Pakistan Water Sector Strategy. Water Sector Profile. Volume 5. http://www.waterinfo.net.pk/pdf/vol5.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. , p. 105
  12. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Planning and Development (2004). Medium Term Development Framework 2005-10. Section 10: Water and Sanitation. Islamabad. http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/ministries/planninganddevelopment-ministry/mtdf/10-Water%20and%20Sanitation/10-Water%20&%20Sanitation.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. 
  13. ^ a b Welle, Katherina (March 2008). "Mapping as a basis for sanitation implementation in Pakistan: the case of the Orangi Pilot Project". Beyond construction. Use by all. A collection of case studies from sanitation and hygiene promotion practitioners in South Asia (London: WaterAid, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre): 95-110. ISBN 978-9937-2-0472-9. http://www.irc.nl/redir/content/download/133761/379575/file/IRC-2008-Beyond_construction.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-06-05. 
  14. ^ United Nations Development Programme; United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific; Asian Development Bank.. The Millennium Development Goals: Progress in Asia and the Pacific 2006. ISBN 19523. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/MDG-Asia-Pacific/mdg-report.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-06-04. , p. 4
  15. ^ Government of Pakistan. Planning Commission. Pakistan Millennium Development Goals Report 2006. http://www.undp.org.pk/uploaddocuments/mdg2006.zip. Retrieved on 2008-06-04. , p. 75
  16. ^ In the document, access is defined as the availability of 45 liters per capita and day (l/c/d) in rural areas and 120 l/c/d in urban areas. In addition, the total time to reach a public water source and return must not be more than 30 minutes. See: Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Environment (November 2007). National Drinking Water Policy. Draft. http://www.environment.gov.pk/NEP/DWPolicy-29Nov2007.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. , p. 3-4
  17. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Environment (September 2006). National Sanitation Policy.. http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/divisions/environment-division/media/Sanitation%20Policy.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. , p. 13
  18. ^ a b c Bridges, Geoff; Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2007). Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. Country Paper Pakistan. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/AWDO/2007/cr08.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. , p. 12
  19. ^ a b c d e Reported by officials from the respective cities at a 2005 workshop in Karachi; see:Water and Sanitation Program (August 2004). Managing Karachi's water supply and sanitation services: lessons from a workshop. http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/11/28/000160016_20051128162902/Rendered/PDF/344430PK0Karachi0water0supply.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-06-04. , p. 4; 6
  20. ^ Weekly Independent, 2005-03-17 ; cited in:Water and Sanitation Program (August 2004). Managing Karachi's water supply and sanitation services: lessons from a workshop. http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/11/28/000160016_20051128162902/Rendered/PDF/344430PK0Karachi0water0supply.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-06-04. , p. 3
  21. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Planning and Development (2004). Medium Term Development Framework 2005-10. Section 10: Water and Sanitation. Islamabad. http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/ministries/planninganddevelopment-ministry/mtdf/10-Water%20and%20Sanitation/10-Water%20&%20Sanitation.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. , section 10.3.
  22. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Environment (November 2007). National Drinking Water Policy. Draft. http://www.environment.gov.pk/NEP/DWPolicy-29Nov2007.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. , p. 4
  23. ^ Khan, Faheem Jehangir; Javed, Yaser (2007). "Delivering Access to Safe Drinking Water and Adequate Sanitation in Pakistan". PIDE-Working Papers (Islamabad: Pakistan Institute of Development Economics) 2007 (30). http://econpapers.repec.org/scripts/redir.pl?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pide.org.pk%2Fpdf%2FWorking%2520Paper%2FWorkingPaper-30.pdf;h=repec:pid:wpaper:2007:30. Retrieved on 2008-06-02. , p. 18-19
  24. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Water and Power (October 2002). Pakistan Water Sector Strategy. Executive Summary. Volume 1. http://www.waterinfo.net.pk/pdf/vol1.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. , p. 7
  25. ^ Pakistan Water Gateway. "The Pakistan Water Situational Analysis". http://waterinfo.net.pk/pdf/pwsa.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. , p. 22-23
  26. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Water and Power (October 2002). Pakistan Water Seector Strategy. National Water Sector Profile. Volume 5. http://www.waterinfo.net.pk/pdf/vol5.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. , p. 15-16
  27. ^ Pakistan Water Gateway (2005). "The Pakistan Water Situational Analysis". http://waterinfo.net.pk/pdf/pwsa.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. , p. 10
  28. ^ Pakistan Water Gateway (2005). "The Pakistan Water Situational Analysis.". http://waterinfo.net.pk/pdf/pwsa.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. , p. 24
  29. ^ a b Ahmad, Malick Zulfiqar (2005). "Pakistan - Water and Sanitation Services in a Devolved Government System". 31st WEDC International Conference (Kampala). http://www.dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/max-benefits-wands.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-06-02. 
  30. ^ For a list of the main legislation in the water sector until 2001, see: Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Water and Power (October 2002). Pakistan Water Seector Strategy. National Water Sector Profile. Volume 5. http://www.waterinfo.net.pk/pdf/vol5.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. , p. 7
  31. ^ a b Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Planning and Development (2004). Medium Term Development Framework 2005-10. Section 10: Water and Sanitation. Islamabad. http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/ministries/planninganddevelopment-ministry/mtdf/10-Water%20and%20Sanitation/10-Water%20&%20Sanitation.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. , section 10.4.
  32. ^ Bridges, Geoff; Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2007). Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. Country Paper Pakistan. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/AWDO/2007/cr08.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. , p. 7
  33. ^ a b Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh (June 2004). South Asian Conference on Sanitation 2003. Chapter 4: Country Papers on Sanitation. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Water and Sanitation Program-South Asia. ISBN 984-32-1500-1. http://www.buet.ac.bd/itn/pages/publications/sacosan_2003/Chapter%204.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-06-04. , p. 160
  34. ^ Water and Sanitation Program (August 2004). Managing Karachi's water supply and sanitation services: lessons from a workshop. http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/11/28/000160016_20051128162902/Rendered/PDF/344430PK0Karachi0water0supply.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-06-04. , p. 5-7
  35. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Environment (November 2007). National Drinking Water Policy. Draft. http://www.environment.gov.pk/NEP/DWPolicy-29Nov2007.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 
  36. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Environment (November 2007). National Drinking Water Policy. Draft. http://www.environment.gov.pk/NEP/DWPolicy-29Nov2007.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. , p. 10
  37. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Environment (September 2006). National Sanitation Policy.. http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/divisions/environment-division/media/Sanitation%20Policy.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 
  38. ^ Ministry of Environment. Clean Drinking Water for All (CDWA). http://www.environment.gov.pk/PRO_PDF/CDWA-Briefs.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-06-02. 
  39. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Water and Power (October 2002). Pakistan Water Seector Strategy. Executive Summary. Volume 1. http://www.waterinfo.net.pk/pdf/vol1.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. , p. 6
  40. ^ Health Services Academy, Ministry of Health, Government of Pakistan; World Health Organization (WHO) (May 2007). Quality Drinking Water: Standards for Pakistan. Includes Legislating, Implementing and Monitoring Framework. http://www.hsa.edu.pk/aboutus/news/2008/Microsoft%20Word%20-%20Final%20DWQ%20Standards%20for%20Pakistan.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-07-02. 
  41. ^ Bridges, Geoff; Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2007). Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. Country Paper Pakistan. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/AWDO/2007/cr08.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. , p. 8
  42. ^ Ahmed, Noman; Sohail, Muhammad (2003). "Alternate water supply arrangements in peri-urban localities: awami (people’s) tanks in Orangi township, Karachi". Environment and Urbanization (SAGE Publications) 15 (2): 33-42. doi:10.1177/095624780301500218. http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/15/2/33.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-06-05. , p. 34
  43. ^ Pakistan Water Gateway (2005). "The Pakistan Water Situational Analysis". http://waterinfo.net.pk/pdf/pwsa.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. , p. 41-42
  44. ^ Bridges, Geoff; Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2007). Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. Country Paper Pakistan. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/AWDO/2007/cr08.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. , p. 10
  45. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Environment (November 2007). National Drinking Water Policy. Draft. http://www.environment.gov.pk/NEP/DWPolicy-29Nov2007.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. , p. 8
  46. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Environment (September 2006). National Sanitation Policy.. http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/divisions/environment-division/media/Sanitation%20Policy.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. , p. 20
  47. ^ Hasan, Arif (2005). The Orangi Pilot Project: Research and Training Institute’s Mapping Process and Its Repercussions. Karachi: Orangi Pilot Project, International Institute for Environment and Development. 
  48. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Environment (September 2006). National Sanitation Policy.. http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/divisions/environment-division/media/Sanitation%20Policy.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. , p. 9; 11; 14; 16; 20
  49. ^ World Bank (2004-11-10). "NGO Gets A Million Dollar WB Administered Japanese Grant For Sanitation". http://www.worldbank.org.pk/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/PAKISTANEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20279839~isCURL:Y~menuPK:293072~pagePK:64027988~piPK:64027986~theSitePK:293052,00.html. Retrieved on 2008-07-03. 
  50. ^ Lodhran Pilot Project. "Website". http://www.lpp.org.pk/. Retrieved on 2008-07-03. 
  51. ^ 1 Pakistani Rupee = US$0.01631 (2007-12-31); source: http://oanda.com
  52. ^ Masroor Ahmad, Water and Sanitation Program, the World Bank (2007-11-01). "Sanitation Movement Gains Ground in Pakistan". http://www.wsp.org/index.cfm?page=page_disp&pid=10506. Retrieved on 2008-07-02. 
  53. ^ Pakistan Water Gateway (2005). "The Pakistan Water Situational Analysis". http://waterinfo.net.pk/pdf/pwsa.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. , p. 20
  54. ^ a b The study uses data from 246 water utilities, of which half are in 44 developing countries. The utilities range from small ones, which serve fewer than 125,000 people to large ones, serving more than 500,000. All regions and within countries, all income levels are included. In each of the five categories (NRW, labor productivity, service coverage, water prices and connection costs and continuity of service), at least 30 utilities from developing countries and 30 from developed countries are included. The best practice targets for developing countries are based on the performance of the top 25 utilities of developing country utilities. The study uses data from the World Bank's Water and Sanitation Utilities database and the Asian Development Bank; see: Tynan, Nicola; Kingdom, Bill (2002-04-01). "A Water Scorecard. Setting Performance Targets for Water Utilities". Public Policy Journal (The World Bank Group) (242). http://rru.worldbank.org/documents/publicpolicyjournal/242Tynan-040802.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-19. 
  55. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Water and Power (October 2002). Pakistan Water Sector Strategy. Detailed Strategy Formulation. Volume 4. http://www.waterinfo.net.pk/pdf/vol4.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. , p. 118
  56. ^ Water and Sanitation Program (August 2004). Managing Karachi's water supply and sanitation services: lessons from a workshop. http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/11/28/000160016_20051128162902/Rendered/PDF/344430PK0Karachi0water0supply.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-06-04. , p. 6
  57. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Water and Power (October 2002). Pakistan Water Sector Strategy. Water Sector Profile. Volume 5. http://www.waterinfo.net.pk/pdf/vol5.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. , p. 245
  58. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Environment (November 2007). National Drinking Water Policy. Draft. http://www.environment.gov.pk/NEP/DWPolicy-29Nov2007.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. , p. 5
  59. ^ It is likely that in this case, the federal government is meant; see: Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Water and Power (October 2002). Pakistan Water Sector Strategy. Water Sector Profile. Volume 5. http://www.waterinfo.net.pk/pdf/vol5.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. , p. 105
  60. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Planning and Development (2004). Medium Term Development Framework 2005-10. Section 10: Water and Sanitation. Islamabad. http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/ministries/planninganddevelopment-ministry/mtdf/10-Water%20and%20Sanitation/10-Water%20&%20Sanitation.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. , sections 10.3.; 10.7.
  61. ^ Asian Development Bank:Investment and Reforms for Cities in Pakistan's Sindh Province, 3 December 2008
  62. ^ Asian Development Bank (ADB). Punjab Community Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project : Pakistan. http://pid.adb.org:8040/pid/LoanView.htm?projNo=35314&seqNo=01&typeCd=3. Retrieved on 2008-06-04. 
  63. ^ 1 Japanese Yen = US$0.008742 (2000-12-31); source: http://oanda.com
  64. ^ Japan Bank for International Cooperation (February 2003). Metropolitan Water Supply Project (Khanpur I). http://www.jbic.go.jp/english/oec/post/2003/pdf/2-27_full.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-06-04. 
  65. ^ World Bank (2001-01-30). Projects - Pakistan : 2nd Karachi Water Supply. http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P010366. Retrieved on 2008-06-03. 
  66. ^ World Bank (2001-01-30). Projects - Pakistan : Rural Water Supply & Sanitation Project. http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?Projectid=P010366&Type=News&theSitePK=40941&pagePK=64308295&menuPK=64282138&piPK=64309265. Retrieved on 2008-06-03. 

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

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Water supply and sanitation in Asia
Sovereign
states
Dependencies,
autonomies,
other territories
Italics indicates an unrecognised or partially recognised country.  1 Sometimes included in Europe, depending on the border definitions.  2 Officially known as Myanmar.  3 Sometimes included in Oceania, and also known as Timor-Leste.  4 Transcontinental country.  5 Commonly known as Taiwan. 
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