Hispanic and Latino Americans

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Hispanic and Latino Americans Estadounidenses hispanos y latinos
Romualdo Pacheco • Zoe Saldana Isabel Allende • Joseph A. Unanue Franklin Chang-Diaz • Gloria Estefan
Total population
Hispanic and Latino Americans 45,427,437[1] 15.1% of the U.S. population (2007)
Regions with significant populations
Predominantly Southwestern • Florida • Chicago • New York City • Washington, D.C.
Languages
Predominantly American English and Spanish
Religion
Predominantly Roman Catholicism; significantly Protestantism, other small minority religions
Related ethnic groups
Latin Americans, Spaniards, Latin Europeans and others

Hispanic and Latino Americans are Americans of origins in Hispanic countries of Latin America or in Spain,^[2][3][4][5] except in the state of New York, where native European people from Spain living in the U.S. are not included in that definition.^[6][7][8] The group encompasses distinct sub-groups by national origin and race,^[9][10][11] and there is much diversity of race and ancestry within national origin groups as well.^[12]

Hispanics and Latinos constitute 15.1% of the total United States population, or 45.4 million people,^[1] forming the second largest ethnic group, after non-Hispanic White Americans (both are composed of dozens of sub-ethnicities).^[11] Again, Hispanic and Latino Americans are the largest ethnic minority in the United States; African Americans, in turn, are the largest racial minority, after White Americans in general (non-Hispanic and Hispanic).^[13] Mexican Americans, Cuban Americans, Colombian Americans, Dominican Americans, Puerto Rican Americans, Spanish Americans, and Salvadoran Americans are some of the Hispanic and Latino American sub-groups.

People of Hispanic or Latino heritage have lived continuously^{[14][15][16][17]} in the territory of the present-day United States since the 1565 founding of St. Augustine, Florida by the Spanish, the longest among European American ethnic groups and second-longest of all U.S. ethnic groups, after American Indians. Hispanics have also lived continuously in the Southwest since near the end of the 16th century, with settlements in New Mexico that began in 1598, and which were transferred to the area of El Paso, Texas in 1680.^[18] Spanish settlement of New Mexico resumed in 1692, and new ones were established in Arizona and California in the 18th century.^[19][20] The Hispanic presence can even be said to date from half a century earlier than St. Augustine, if San Juan, Puerto Rico is considered to be the oldest Spanish settlement, and the oldest city, in the U.S.^[21]

For the U.S. government and others, Hispanic or Latino identity is voluntary, as in the United States Census, and in some market research.^[22]

Contents 1 Terminology 2 History 3 Demographics 3.1 Race 4 Notable contributions 4.1 Business 4.2 Government 4.3 Literature 4.4 Military 4.5 Performing arts 4.6 Science and technology 4.7 Sports 5 Socioeconomic circumstances 5.1 Education 5.2 Workforce and average income 5.3 Poverty 5.4 Discrimination and stereotype 6 Political trends 6.1 2008 election 6.1.1 Primaries 6.1.2 General 7 Culture 7.1 Media 7.2 Language 8 See also 9 Footnotes 10 External links

[edit] Terminology

Part of a series of articles on Hispanic and Latino Americans
Groups
Argentine Americans Bolivian Americans Chilean Americans Colombian Americans Costa Rican Americans Cuban Americans Dominican Americans Ecuadorian Americans Guatemalan Americans Honduran Americans Mexican Americans Nicaraguan Americans Panamanian Americans Paraguayan Americans Peruvian Americans Puerto Ricans (stateside) Salvadoran Americans Spanish Americans Uruguayan Americans Venezuelan Americans
History
History of Hispanic and Latino Americans History of Mexican-Americans
Religions
Christian Latinos · Santeria Latino Jews · Latino Muslims
Political movements
Hispanic and Latino American politics Chicano Movement
Organizations
NALEO Congressional Hispanic Caucus LULAC · NALFO · SHPE National Council of La Raza Association of Hispanic Arts · MEChA · UFW National Society of Hispanic MBAs
Culture
Hispanic culture Literature · Studies · Music
Languages
English · Spanish in the United States Spanish · Spanglish
Lists
Communities with Hispanic majority Puerto Rico-related topics Notable Hispanics Related topics
Portals
Latino and Hispanic Portal
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The term Hispanic was first adopted in the United States by the administration of Richard Nixon,^[23] and has since been used in local and federal employment, mass media, academia, and business market research. It has been used in the U.S. Census since 1980.^[24] Due to the popular use of "Latino" in the western portion of the United States, the government adopted this term as well in 1997, and it was used in the 2000 census.^[25][5]

The terms "Hispanic" and "Spanish" are not to be confused. The Spanish (or Spaniards) are the people who are native to or who have origins in Spain, located in mainland Europe.

Previously, Hispanics were categorized as "Spanish-Americans," "Spanish-speaking Americans," and "Spanish-surnamed Americans". These terms, however, proved misleading or inaccurate,^{[citation needed]} since:

• Although a large majority of Hispanics have Spanish ancestry, most Hispanics are not of direct (non-Latin American) Spanish descent; many are not primarily of Spanish descent; and some Hispanics are not of Spanish descent at all. For example, there are Hispanics of other European ancestries (e.g. Italian, German, Polish), as well as Middle Eastern (e.g. Lebanese), Black, Amerindian/Native American, Asian, and mixed race ancestries — of the latter, Mestizo (White and Indigenous/Native American) and Mulatto (White and Black) are the most common. On the other hand, descendants of Spaniards such as Hispanos and Islenos, both of whose American history extends back for centuries, identify solely with the United States rather than with Spain;^{[citation needed]}

• Most U.S. Hispanics can speak Spanish, not all; and most Spanish-speaking people are Hispanic, not all (e.g., many U.S. Hispanics by the fourth generation no longer speak Spanish, while there are some non-Hispanics who are fluent in the language);^{[citation needed]}
• Most Hispanics have a Spanish surname, not all (a notable example of someone who does not is New Mexico governor Bill Richardson), and most Spanish-surnamed people are Hispanic, not all. For example, there are many Filipino Americans, Chamorros (Guamanians and Northern Mariana Islanders), Palauans, Micronesians (FSM), and Marshallese with Spanish surnames in the United States who, however, have their own, non-Hispanic ethnic identities. Likewise, while a number of Louisiana Creole people have Spanish surnames, they identify with the mixed Francophone and Spanish culture of the region.

The terms Hispanic and Latino are held to be mutually distinct by some authorities of American English, as seen in the following quotation:

"Though often used interchangeably in American English, Hispanic and Latino are not identical terms, and in certain contexts the choice between them can be significant. Hispanic, from the Latin word for "Spain," has the broader reference, potentially encompassing all Spanish-speaking peoples in both hemispheres and emphasizing the common denominator of language among communities that sometimes have little else in common. Latino—which in Spanish means "Latin" but which as an English word is probably a shortening of the Spanish word latinoamericano—refers more exclusively to persons or communities of Latin American origin. Of the two, only Hispanic can be used in referring to Spain and its history and culture; a native of Spain residing in the United States is a Hispanic, not a Latino, and one cannot substitute Latino in the phrase the Hispanic influence on native Mexican cultures without garbling the meaning. In practice, however, this distinction is of little significance when referring to residents of the United States, most of whom are of Latin American origin and can theoretically be called by either word."^[26]

Neither term refers to race, as a person of Latino or Hispanic descent can be of any race.^[27][5]

As officially defined in the United States, Latino does not include Brazilian Americans,^[4][5] and specifically refers to "Spanish culture or origin,"^[4][5] although some dictionary definitions may include them or Brazilians in general. Furthermore, Hispanic or Latino origin is, like race, a matter of self-identification in the U.S., and government and non-government questionnaires, including the census form,^[28] usually contain a blank entry space wherein respondents can indicate a Spanish/Hispanic/Latino origin other than the few (Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban) which are specified; presumably, any Brazilian American wishing to do so can thus self-identify as being of Latino origin (as can anyone with no Latin American background). However, the government's population reports do not include Brazilian Americans with Hispanics and Latinos.^[29][5]

Listed here are the 28 Hispanic or Latino categories displayed in Census 2000 tabulations:^[30] Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican Republic; Central American: Costa Rican, Guatemalan, Honduran, Nicaraguan, Panamanian, Salvadoran, Other Central American; South American: Argentinian, Bolivian, Chilean, Colombian, Ecuadorian, Paraguayan, Peruvian, Uruguayan, Venezuelan, Other South American; Other Hispanic or Latino: Spaniard, Spanish, Spanish American, All other Hispanic.

[edit] History

A continuous Hispanic/Latino presence in the territory of the United States has existed since the 16th century,^{[14][15][17][16]} earlier than any other group after the Native Americans. Spaniards pioneered the present–day United States. The first confirmed European landing in the continental U.S. was by Juan Ponce de León, who landed in 1513 at a lush shore he christened La Florida. Within three decades of Ponce de León's landing, the Spanish became the first Europeans to reach the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon and the Great Plains. Spanish ships sailed along the East Coast, penetrating to present-day Bangor, Maine, and up the Pacific Coast as far as Oregon. From 1528 to 1536, four castaways from a Spanish expedition, including a "Moor", journeyed all the way from Florida to the Gulf of California, 267 years before the Lewis and Clark Expedition.

In 1540 Hernando de Soto undertook an extensive exploration of the present U.S., and in the same year Francisco Vásquez de Coronado led 2,000 Spaniards and Mexican Indians across today's Arizona–Mexico border and traveled as far as central Kansas, close to the exact geographic center of what is now the continental United States. Other Spanish explorers of the US make up a long list that includes, among others: Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, Pánfilo de Narváez, Sebastián Vizcaíno, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, Gaspar de Portolà, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Tristán de Luna y Arellano and Juan de Oñate. In all, Spaniards probed half of today's lower 48 states before the first English colonization attempt at Roanoke Island in 1585.

The Spanish created the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States, at St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565. Santa Fe, New Mexico also predates Jamestown, Virginia (founded in 1607) and Plymouth Colony (of Mayflower and Pilgrims fame; founded in 1620). Later came Spanish settlements in San Antonio, Texas, Tucson, Arizona, San Diego, California, Los Angeles, California and San Francisco, California, to name just a few. The Spanish even established a Jesuit mission in Virginia's Chesapeake Bay 37 years before the founding of Jamestown.

Two iconic American stories have Spanish antecedents, too. Almost 80 years before John Smith's alleged rescue by Pocahontas, a man by the name of Juan Ortiz told of his remarkably similar rescue from execution by an Indian girl. Spaniards also held a thanksgiving — 56 years before the famous Pilgrims festival — when they feasted near St. Augustine with Florida Indians, probably on stewed pork and garbanzo beans. As late as 1783, at the end of the American Revolutionary War, Spain held claim to roughly half of today's continental United States; in 1775, Spanish ships even reached Alaska. From 1819 to 1848, the United States (through treaties, purchase, diplomacy, and the Mexican-American War) increased its area by roughly a third at Spanish and Mexican expense, acquiring three of today's four most populous states — California, Texas and Florida — and several smaller ones. Hispanics became the first American citizens in these new territories, and remained a majority in several Southwestern states until the 20th century. (See also Viceroyalty of New Spain.)

Hispanic soldiers have fought in all the wars of the United States.^[31] See also List of Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients

[edit] Demographics

Population by state (2006)^[32]

State	Population	Percentage of state population
New Mexico	860,687	44.0
California	13,074,155	35.9
Texas	8,385,118	35.7
Arizona	1,803,377	29.2
Nevada	610,051	24.4
Florida	3,642,989	20.1
Colorado	934,410	19.7
New York	3,139,590	16.3
New Jersey	1,364,699	15.6
Illinois	1,888,439	14.7

As of July 1, 2007, Hispanics accounted for 15.1% of the national population, or around 45.4 million people. The Hispanic growth rate over the April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2007 period was 28.7% — about four times the rate of the nation's total population (at 7.2%).^[33] The growth rate from July 1, 2005 to July 1, 2006 alone was 3.4%^[34] — about three and a half times the rate of the nation's total population (at 1.0%).^[35] The projected Hispanic population of the United States for July 1, 2050 is 102.6 million people, or 24.4% of the nation’s total projected population on that date.^[36]

Of the nation's total Hispanic or Latino population, 49% (21.5 million) lives in California or Texas. Not counting Puerto Rico — which is a territorial possession of the United States — New Mexico is the state with the highest ratio of Hispanics, where 44.7% is of Hispanic origin. Next are California and Texas, with 35.9 and 35.6, respectively.^[37]

The Hispanic population of Los Angeles County, California, numbering 4.7 million, is the largest of any county in the nation.^[38] It comprises 47 percent of Los Angeles County's ten million residents.^[39]

Some 64% of the nation's Hispanic population are of Mexican ancestry (see table). Another 9% are of Puerto Rican background, with about 3% each of Cuban, Salvadoran and Dominican origins. The remainder are of other Central American or South American descent, or of descent directly from Spain. About 7% are of unspecified national origins.

Hispanics are almost uniformly Christian with Catholicism dominating and an increasing Protestant community.

Population by national origin (2006)^[40]

Hispanic Group	Population	Percentage
Mexican	28,395,997	64.1
Puerto Rican	3,985,058	9.0
Cuban	1,517,028	3.4
Salvadoran	1,363,726	3.1
Dominican	1,217,160	2.7
Guatemalan	896,780	2.0
Colombian	793,682	1.8
Honduran	486,026	1.1
Ecuadorian	478,957	1.1
Peruvian	430,009	1.0
Spaniard	372,632	0.8
Nicaraguan	298,928	0.7
Venezuelan	176,451	0.4
Argentine	175,944	0.4
Panamanian	124,138	0.3
Costa Rican	111,678	0.3
Chilean	93,465	0.2
Bolivian	86,465	0.2
Uruguayan	46,836	0.1
Paraguayan	15,751	0.03
Other Central American	115,064	0.3
Other South American	72,541	0.2
"Spanish"/"Hispanic"/"Latino"	3,044,659	6.9

The overwhelming majority of Mexican Americans are concentrated in the Southwestern United States, primarily California, Texas, Arizona, Nevada and New Mexico. The majority of the Hispanic population in the Southeastern United States, concentrated in Florida, are of Cuban origin. The Hispanic population in the Northeastern United States, concentrated in New York and New Jersey, is composed mostly of Puerto Ricans, however, the Dominican population has risen considerably in the last decade. The remainder of Hispanics, composed of various Central American and South American origins, may be found throughout the country, though South Americans tend to concentrate on the East Coast (joining Puerto Ricans, Dominicans, and Cubans) and Central Americans on the West Coast (joining Mexicans/Mexican Americans).

There are few recent immigrants directly from Spain. In the 2000 Census, 299,948 Americans specifically reported their ancestry as Spaniard.^[41] Additionally, in the 2000 Census some 2,187,144 Americans reported "Spanish" as their ancestry.^[41]

The Census Bureau reports a decrease in the percentages of Hispanics, of all national groups, including Spaniards, who identify themselves with a specific national origin, in favor of general labels such as "Hispanic". Several long–established Hispanic communities within the present–day territory of the United States do clearly fall within a traditional national origin category. One example is the Hispanic population of northern New Mexico and southern Colorado. These peoples trace their ancestry to Spanish settlers who arrived in the region during the late 16th century through the 17th century. People from this background often self-identify as "Hispano," "Spanish," or "Hispanic." Many of these settlers also intermarried with local Amerindians, creating a mestizo population.^[42] Likewise, southern Louisiana is home to communities of people of Canary Islands descent, known as Isleños, in addition to other people of Spanish ancestry.

[edit] Race

Hispanic or Latino origin is independent of race and is termed "ethnicity" by the United States Census Bureau. The racial categories are: American Indian and Alaska Native, White, Black or African American, Asian, Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, Some other race, and Two or more races. The distinction made by government agencies for those within the population of each race category is between those with Hispanic or Latino ethnic background and all others of Non-Hispanic or Latino ethnic background.^[5]

Race by Hispanic Origin (2000)[12]
Country of Origin	White	Black	Some Other Race
Mexican	47.3%	0.7	45.5
Puerto Rican	47.2%	5.9	37.9
Cuban	85.0%	3.6	7.1
Dominican	22.7%	8.9	58.4
Central American	40.4%	3.3	47.6
South American	59.6%	0.9	30.8
Other Hispanic	44.1%	2.0	42.2

A majority of Hispanic and Latino Americans are white, per both sets of government estimates: 54% are white per the American Community Survey,^[10] while the ratio rises to 92% in the Population Estimates Program, which are the official estimates.^[9] The much larger official figure is due to the absence of the Some other race category from these estimates, which instead reallocate that category among the five standard, minimum, single-race categories, mostly the white category.^[43] The complete 2007 Hispanic or Latino racial breakdown is as follows:^[9][10] White 92% (official) or 54% (ACS); Black or African American 3.8% (official) or 1.5% (ACS); American Indian and Alaska Native 1.4% (official) or 0.8% (ACS); Asian 0.6% (official) or 0.3% (ACS); Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander 0.3% (official) or 0.07% (ACS); Some other race 40% (ACS only; not an official race); Two or more races 0.6% (official) or 3.8% (ACS).

Though comprising very small percentages of the overall Hispanic or Latino population, and even more so in comparison to the overall U.S. population, some of the preceding racial subgroups represent fairly large minorities among the respective racial groups. For instance, Hispanics or Latinos who are American Indian or Alaska Native compose 15% of all American Indians and Alaska Natives (per the ACS estimates). Meanwhile, the 120,000 Hispanics or Latinos who are of Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander race compose 22% of this entire race nationally (per the Population Estimates). Again, nearly a third of the overall 'Two or more race' population is Hispanic or Latino (ACS).^[9][10]

[edit] Notable contributions

Hispanic and Latino Americans have made many contributions to the United States and distinguished themselves in all major fields, such as politics, the military, music, literature, sports, business and economy, and science.

[edit] Business

Hispanic and Latino standouts in business include Cuban immigrant Roberto Goizueta, who rose to head of Coca–Cola.^[44] Arte Moreno became the first Hispanic to own a major sports team in the United States when he purchased the Anaheim Angels baseball club.^[45] The largest Hispanic-owned food company in the U.S. is Goya Foods, which position it attained under World War II hero Joseph A. Unanue, the son of the company's founders.^[46]

This section requires expansion.

[edit] Government

Hispanic Americans have held important positions at all levels of US government.

Hispanics and Latinos in the Federal Cabinet include, among others, Ken Salazar current Secretary of the Interior; Hilda Solis current United States Secretary of Labor; Alberto Gonzales, former United States Attorney General; Carlos Gutierrez, Secretary of Commerce; Federico Peña former Secretary of Energy; Lauro Cavazos, former Secretary of Education; Manuel Lujan, Jr., former Secretary of the Interior; and Bill Richardson, former Secretary of Energy and Ambassador to the United Nations.

Governors include former governors Romualdo Pacheco, Bob Martinez, and current New Mexico governor Bill Richardson. Senators include former senators Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, Dennis Chavez, Joseph Montoya, Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo and Ken Salazar. Current senators serveing Mel Martinez, and Bob Menendez.

In the House of Representatives, Hispanic and Latino representatives have included Ladislas Lazaro, Antonio M. Fernández, Henry B. Gonzalez, Kika de la Garza, Herman Badillo, Romualdo Pacheco, and Manuel Lujan, Jr., out of almost two dozen former Representatives. Current Representatives include Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, Nydia Velázquez, Joe Baca, Silvestre Reyes, Rubén Hinojosa, Linda Sánchez, and John Salazar; in all, they number twenty-three. Numerous Hispanic or Latino mayors and local executives, and state and local legislators have held and currently hold office throughout the United States.

The Congressional Hispanic Caucus (CHC) founded in December 1976 and the Congressional Hispanic Conference (CHC) founded on March 19, 2003 are two organizations that promote policy of importance to Americans of Hispanic descent. The Congressional Hispanic Caucus and the Congressional Hispanic Conference are divided into the two major American political parties: Democrat and Republican. The Congressional Hispanic Caucus is composed entirely of Democratic Congressmen, and the Congressional Hispanic Conference is composed entirely of Republican Congressmen.

[edit] Literature

The House of the Spirits and City of the Beasts by Isabel Allende, The House on Mango Street and Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories by Sandra Cisneros, The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao by Junot Díaz, Haters by Alisa Valdes-Rodriguez, ...And the Earth did Not Devour Him by Tomas Rivera, The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love by Oscar Hijuelos, Hunger of Memory by Richard Rodriguez, Bless Me, Ultima by Rudolfo Anaya, Rain of Gold by Victor Villaseñor and Ruben Salazar.

[edit] Military

Hispanic and Latino participation in the military of the United States has occurred since the founding of the republic, and military recruitment is quite active in the nation's Hispanic communities. Tens of thousands of Latinos are deployed in the Iraq War, the Afghanistan War, and US military missions and bases elsewhere.

This section requires expansion.

[edit] Performing arts

There are many Hispanic American musicians that have achieved international fame, such as Christina Aguilera, Mariah Carey, Jennifer Lopez, Joan Baez, Selena, Ricky Martin, Carlos Santana, Zack de la Rocha, Fergie, Gloria Estefan, Marc Anthony, Linda Ronstadt, Ritchie Valens and Robert Trujillo. Latino and Hispanic music remains popular in the United States and around the world.

Hispanics and Latinos have also contributed prominent actors and others in the television and film industries, past and present, a few of whom includes director, producer, and cinematographer Robert Rodriguez and actors Anthony Quinn, Jessica Alba, Cameron Diaz, Martin Sheen, Salma Hayek, Rita Hayworth, Benicio Del Toro, Eva Mendes, Desi Arnaz, Zoe Saldana, George Lopez, Alexis Bledel, Edward James Olmos, Maria Montez, Erik Estrada, Eva Longoria Parker, Rosie Perez, Ricardo Montalban, Jimmy Smits, Raquel Welch, Marquita Rivera, Charlie Sheen, Rita Moreno, Frankie J, and Andy Garcia.

Created in 1995, the American Latino Media Arts Award, or ALMA Award is a distinction award given to Latino performers (actors, film and television directors, and musicians) by the National Council of La Raza. This awards fesival is commonly referred to as the "Latin American Oscars" in North America. The most prestigious Latin music awards today are the Latin Grammy Awards launched in 2000. In addition to the Latin Grammys, Billboard Magazine also honors these artists in the Billboard Latin Music Awards. Differences between the Latin Grammy Awards and the Billbord Latin Music Awards are that the Billboard Latin Music Awards nominees and winners are a result of performance on Billboard's sales and radio charts and the Latin Grammy Awards nominees and winners are selected by the Latin Recording Academy (LARAS). In addition the Latin Grammy Awards airs on Univision while the Billboard Latin Music Awards airs on Telemundo, the two major Spanish-language television network competitors in the United States.

[edit] Science and technology

Among Hispanic Americans that have excelled in science, we find Luis Walter Alvarez, Nobel Prize-winning physicist; his son Walter Alvarez, the geologist who first proposed the well-known asteroid collision theory of dinosaur extinction; and Ellen Ochoa, pioneer of spacecraft technology and astronaut.

Several other Latinos have made a name for themselves in aerospace: Juan R. Cruz, NASA aerospace engineer; France A. Córdova, former NASA chief scientist; Franklin Chang-Diaz holds two records for being the first Latin American (for NASA) and for most flights into space, and is the leading researcher on the plasma engine for rockets; Lieutenant Carlos I. Noriega is NASA mission specialist and computer scientist; Michael Lopez-Alegria, Sidney Gutierrez, George Zamka, Joseph Acaba, John Olivas, Jose Hernández, and Fernando Caldeiro are all current or former astronauts.

[edit] Sports

Many Hispanic Americans have excelled in sports. The large number of Hispanic and Latino American athletes that have starred in Major League Baseball includes Manny Ramirez, Lefty Gomez, Ivan Rodriguez, Juan Marichal, Alex Rodriguez, Orlando Hernandez, and David Ortiz, as well as National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum members Roberto Clemente and Rod Carew. It also includes manager Al Lopez, one of the sport's all time greatest.

Boxing champion Oscar De La Hoya, National Football League Pro Football Hall of Fame player Anthony Muñoz, National Soccer Hall of Fame player Tab Ramos, tennis legend Pancho Gonzales, and World Golf Hall of Fame golfers Juan "Chi-Chi" Rodríguez, Nancy Lopez, Lee Trevino, and softball player Lisa Fernandez are all Hispanic or Latino Americans who have distinguished themselves in their respective fields of sport. In 1999 Scott Gomez became the first Hispanic player in the National Hockey League. Elsewhere we find Professional wrestler Oscar Gutierrez, better known by his ring name Rey Mysterio Jr.

[edit] Socioeconomic circumstances

Immigration from Hispanic countries, such as Mexico and Cuba, has often followed adverse political and economic circumstances there. The strongest waves of Mexican immigrants came between the late 1970s and mid–1990s, when the value of the Mexican currency (the peso) dropped suddenly to half its value, sending the country into economic shock. Many of the people who have come from Mexico are from the poor parts of Mexico City, the southern states with large Amerindian communities, and also the poor parts of the north of Mexico. In the late 1990s more Mexican professionals have started to work between the two countries, and some of the lower middle class has also begun to immigrate.

Some Cuban immigrants were from privileged socioeconomic positions, and were fleeing Fidel Castro's communist government.

[edit] Education

High school graduation rates are highest among Cuban Americans (68.7 percent) and lowest among Mexican Americans (48.7 percent). Other Hispanic groups fall in–between, including Puerto Ricans (63.2 percent), Central and South Americans (60.4 percent) and Dominican Americans (51.7 percent).

According to the 2000 census, Cuban Americans and Central and South Americans had the highest college graduation rates, with 19.4 percent of Cuban Americans and 16 percent of Central and South Americans 25 years and older achieving a 4–year college degree. Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans and Dominican Americans had considerably lower college graduation rates, with only 6.2 percent of Mexican Americans, 9.9 of Puerto Ricans and 10.9 of Dominican Americans achieving a 4–year college degree. In comparison non–Hispanic Asian Americans (43.3 percent) and non–Hispanic White Americans (26.1 percent) had a higher graduation rate than all Hispanic American groups. Non–Hispanic Black Americans (14.4 percent) had a lower graduation rate than Cuban Americans and Central and South Americans but had a higher graduation rate than Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans and Dominican Americans.^{[citation needed]}

Cuban Americans have the highest attainment of graduate degrees among all Hispanic groups, with 6.7 percent. The Central and South Americans ratio is 4.2 percent. Both are lower than those of non–Hispanic Asian Americans (15.6 percent) and non–Hispanic White Americans (8.7 percent). Non–Hispanic Black Americans (4.1 percent) have a higher percentage of graduate level degrees than all Hispanic groups with the exception of Cuban Americans and South and Central Americans. Of those 25 years and older only 3.1 percent of Puerto Ricans, 1.8 percent of Dominican Americans and 1.4 percent of Mexican Americans have attained a graduate level degree.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Workforce and average income

In 2002, the average individual income for Hispanics was highest amongst Cuban Americans ($38,733), and lowest amongst Dominican Americans ($28,467) and Mexican Americans ($27,877). Puerto Ricans ($33,927) and Central and South Americans ($30,444) placed in–between. In comparison, the income of the average Hispanic American is lower than the national average.

Among Hispanics, Cuban Americans (28.5 percent) had the highest percentage in professional–managerial occupations, but that percentage was lower than the average for non–Hispanics (36.2 percent). In comparison, the percentage for Puerto Ricans was 20.7, Central and South Americans' was 16.8 percent and Mexican Americans' was 13.2 percent.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Poverty

According to ACS Reports,^[47] among Hispanic groups the poverty rate is highest among Dominican Americans (28.1 percent), Honduran Americans and Puerto Ricans (23.7 percent both), and Mexican Americans (23.6 percent). It is lowest among South Americans, such as Colombian Americans (10.6 percent) and Peruvian Americans (13.6 percent), and relatively low poverty rates are also found among Salvadoran Americans (15.0 percent) and Cuban Americans (15.2 percent). In comparison, the average poverty rates for non-Hispanic White Americans (8.8 percent)^[47] and Asian Americans (7.1 percent) were lower than that of any Hispanic group. African Americans (21.3 percent) have a higher poverty rate than all Hispanic groups, with the exception of Dominican Americans and Puerto Ricans.

[edit] Discrimination and stereotype

Hispanophobia has existed in various degrees throughout U.S. history, based largely on ethnicity, race, culture, Anti-Catholicism, and use of the Spanish language.^{[48][49][50][51]}

In 2006, Time Magazine reported that the number of hate groups in the United States increased by 33 percent since 2000, primarily due to anti-illegal immigrant and anti-Mexican sentiment.^[52]

According to Federal Bureau of Investigation statistics, the number of anti-Latino hate crimes increased by 35 percent since 2003. In California, the state with the largest Latino population, the number of hate crimes against Latinos has almost doubled.^[53]

[edit] Political trends

Hispanics and Latinos differ on their political views depending on their location and background, but the majority (57%)^[54] identify themselves as Democrats or support the Democrats, as reflected in the voting results of recent decades. 23% of Hispanics and Latinos identify themselves as Republicans.^[54] The 34% percentage point gap as of December, 2007 was an increase from the gap of 21 points 16 months earlier. Cuban Americans and Colombian Americans tend to favor conservative political ideologies and support the Republicans, while Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Dominican Americans tend to favor liberal views and support the Democrats; however, because the latter groups are far more numerous, as Mexican Americans alone are 64% of Hispanics and Latinos, the Democratic Party is considered to be in a far stronger position among Hispanics overall.

The Presidency of George W. Bush has had a significant impact on the political leanings of Hispanics and Latinos. As a former Governor of Texas, President Bush has regarded this growing community as a potential source of growth for the conservative movement and the Republican Party,^{[citation needed]} and he made some gains for the Republican Party among the group.

In the 1996 presidential election, 72% of Hispanics backed President Bill Clinton, but in 2000, that Democratic total fell to 62%, and down further to 58% in 2004, with Democrat John Kerry winning Hispanics 58-40 over Bush. Hispanics in the West, especially in California, were much stronger for the Democratic Party than in Texas and Florida. California Latinos voted 63-32 for John Kerry in 2004, and both Arizona and New Mexico Latinos by a smaller 56-43 margin, but Texas Latinos were split nearly evenly (50-49 for Kerry), and Florida Latinos (mostly being Cuban American) backed Bush by a 54-45 margin.

In the 2006 midterm election, however, due to the unpopularity of the Iraq War, the heated debate concerning illegal immigration, and Republican-related Congressional scandals, Latinos went as strongly Democratic as they have since the Clinton years. Exit polls showed Hispanic and Latino Americans voting for Democrats by a lopsided 69-30 margin, with Florida Latinos for the first time split evenly. The runoff election in Texas' 23rd congressional district was seen as a bellwether of Latino politics, and Democrat Ciro Rodriguez's unexpected (and unexpectedly decisive) defeat of Republican incumbent Henry Bonilla was seen as proof of a leftward lurch among Latino voters, as heavily Latino counties overwhelmingly backed Rodriguez, and heavily Anglo counties overwhelmingly backed Bonilla. There has been talk in the media^[who?] that the heated Republican opposition to the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 may have done significant damage to the Republican party's appeal to Hispanics and Latinos in the years to come, especially in the swing states such as Florida, Nevada, and Colorado.^{[citation needed]} The issue of illegal immigration, however, has been divisive among certain Hispanics and Latinos such as the "You Don't Speak for Me" group with they advocating greater border security and somehow expulsion of all 12 million illegal immigrants.^[55]. On the other hand, in the polls taken among Hispanics and Latinos, the issue of whole immigration discussion, around 90% of Hispanics and Latinos rated immigration as "somewhat important" to "very important," saying that the end of 2008 and early 2009 US economic problems were significant in their decisions, the topic of immigration is not "very far from their mind."^[56].

[edit] 2008 election

[edit] Primaries

In the 2008 U.S. Presidential election, Hispanics and Latinos have been participating in large numbers than before in the Democratic primary. Critics and pundits have been discussing whether Hispanics and Latinos will vote in large part for an African-American candidate, in this case Barack Obama^[57]. In the Democratic primary, many have often preferred Hillary Clinton.^[58]

In the matchup between Democratic candidate Barack Obama and Republican candidate John McCain as of June 2008 for the presidential race, Hispanics and Latinos supported Senator Barack Obama 59% to Senator John McCain's 29% in the Gallup tracking poll. This surprised some analysts since more than expected percentage of Latinos and Hispanics favored Barack Obama than John McCain, who supported the comprehensive immigration reform^[59]; however he had to retract his support in the Republican primary by saying he won't support the bill again if it came up again, which some analysts said that it hurted his chance among Hispanics and Latinos while being a moderate on social issues among certain Republicans^[60]. Barack Obama also took this chance to run number of Spanish language ads for Hispanics and Latinos particularly mentioning John McCain's withdrawal of support from the bill^[61]. 18% of participants identified themselves as Republicans in the same Gallup poll that polled 4,604 registered Hispanic voters, which is among the lowest percentages for Republicans among Hispanics and Latinos^[62].

[edit] General

In the 2008 election, 66% of Hispanics and Latinos voted for Barack Obama, which is 23% higher than George Bush's^[63] and 32% voted for McCain^[64] with a relatively stronger turnout than previous elections in states such as Colorado, New Mexico and Florida and helping him carry states such as Nevada, Virginia, Colorado and New Mexico. Barack Obama won 75% of non-Cuban Hispanics and 35% of traditionally conservative Cuban-Americans that have strong presence in Florida and the changing demographic of Florida to more non-Cuban Hispanics also contributed in him carrying the state of Florida by 57% over McCain^[65].

Some political organizations associated with Hispanic and Latino Americans are LULAC, the United Farm Workers, the Cuban American National Foundation, and the National Institute for Latino Policy.

[edit] Culture

The geographic, political, social, economic, and racial diversity of Hispanic and Latino Americans extends to culture, as well. Yet several features tend to unite Hispanics and Latinos from these diverse backgrounds.

[edit] Media

The United States is home to thousands of Spanish language media outlets, which range in size from giant commercial broadcasting networks and major magazines with circulations numbering in the millions, to low-power AM radio stations with listeners numbering in the hundreds. There are hundreds of Internet media outlets targeting U.S. Hispanic consumers, some of which are online versions of their printed counterparts and others online exclusively.

Among the noteworthy Spanish-language media outlets are:

• Univision, the largest Spanish-language television network in the United States, with affiliates in nearly every major U.S. market, including numerous affiliates internationally;
• Telemundo, the second–largest Spanish-language television network in the United States, with affiliates in nearly every major U.S. market, including numerous affiliates internationally;
• La Opinión, a Spanish-language daily newspaper published in Los Angeles, California and distributed throughout the six counties of Southern California. It is the largest Spanish-language newspaper in the United States.
• El Nuevo Herald, a Spanish-language daily newspaper serving the greater Miami, Florida market;
• HispanicBusiness, a English-language Business magazine for about Hispanics.
• Vida Latina, a Spanish-language entertainment magazine distributed throughout the Southern United States.
• ConSentido TV, TV, Radio and newspaper network in North Texas.

In the aspect of public television, otherwise known as non-commercial television, there are organizations that advocate a greater degree of programming from a Hispanic or Latino perspective. The National Hispanic Media Coalition (NHMC) has been a leader since its founding in 1986 in advocating for Latino inclusion in television, radio and film.^[66] In 1999, along with a board coalition of national Latino organizations, the NHMC led a "brownout" of the national television networks after discovering that there were no Latinos in any of their new prime time shows that year.^[67] This resulted in the signing of historic diversity agreements with ABC, CBS, Fox, and NBC that have increased the hiring of Hispanic and Latino talent and other staff in all of the networks since then. Also prominent in this area is Latino Public Broadcasting, which funds programs of educational and cultural significance to Hispanic Americans. These LPB-funded projects are distributed to various public television stations throughout the United States.

[edit] Language

With 40% of Hispanic and Latino Americans being immigrants,^[68] and with many of the 60% who are U.S.–born being the children or grandchildren of immigrants, bilingualism is the norm in the community at large: at least 69% of all Hispanic and Latino Americans over age five are bilingual in English and Spanish, whereas up to 22% are monolingual English–speakers, and 9% are monolingual Spanish–speakers; another 0.4% speak a language other than English and Spanish at home.^[69] In all, a full 90% of all Hispanic and Latino Americans speak English, and at least 78% of all Hispanic and Latino Americans speak Spanish.^[69]

The usual pattern is monolingual Spanish use among new migrants or older foreign–born Hispanics, complete bilingualism among long settled immigrants and the children of immigrants, and the sole use of English and often some Spanglish and colloquial Spanish within long established Hispanic communities by the third generation and beyond. The children and grandchildren of immigrants often speak mostly English with some Spanish words and phrases thrown in.

[edit] See also

• Hispanic
• Hispanicity
• White Hispanic
• Black Hispanic
• White Latin American
• Afro-Latin American
• Britons with Latin American ancestry
• Hispanic Australian
• Latin American Canadian
• Mestizo
• Demographics of the United States
• Native Americans in the United States

[edit] Footnotes

[edit] External links

• Hispanic Americans in Congress Library of Congress
• Hispanic Americans in the U.S. Army
• http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/p20-535.pdf

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