Theodora (6th century)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article may be too long to comfortably read and navigate. Please consider splitting content into sub-articles and using this article for a summary of the key points of the subject.

Theodora Θεοδώρα
Byzantine Empress
Theodora, detail of a Byzantine mosaic in Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna
Reign as consort	527–548
Spouse	Justinian I
Issue
John, Theodora (both illegitimate)
Full name
Theodora
Father	Acacius
Mother	Theodora?
Born	c. 500 Famagusta, Cyprus
Died	28 June 548 (aged 48) Constantinople
Burial	Church of the Holy Apostles

Theodora (Greek: Θεοδώρα) (c. 500 - June 28, 548), was empress of the Byzantine Empire and the wife of Emperor Justinian I. Like her husband, she is a saint in the Orthodox Church, commemorated on November 14.^[1] Theodora is perhaps the most influential and powerful woman in the Byzantine Empire's history.

Contents 1 Historiography 2 Early years 2.1 Origin 2.2 Childhood 2.3 Life and reputation on stage 2.4 Travels 2.5 Mistress and wife of Justinian 2.6 Description 3 Ascent to the Byzantine throne 3.1 Partnership in power 3.2 Courtly life 3.3 Events of the reign 3.4 Legislation 3.5 Involvement in affairs of Praejecta 4 Religious policy 5 Death 6 Known family members 7 Lasting Influence 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links

[edit] Historiography

The main historical sources for her life are the works of Procopius. However the historian has offered three rather contradictory portrayals of the Empress. The Wars of Justinian paints a picture of a courageous and influential empress. The Secret History focuses on her first on her early life as an actress and courtesan and secondly on her intrigues at court. The work is full of "lurid details" but arguably serves as the most detailed life account of Theodora. The Buildings of Justinian is a panegyric which paints Justinian and Theodora as an equally pious couple and presents particularly flattering portrayals of them. Besides her piety, her beauty is excessively praised. While the historical details in all three do not directly contradict each other, there is a lack of a more balanced portrayal of Theodora in all three. All the works were completed following her death. ^[2]

Various other historians presented additional information on her life. Theophanes the Confessor mentions some familial relations of Theodora to figures not mentioned by Procopius. Victor Tonnennensis notes her familial relation to the next empress, Sophia. Nicephorus Callistus Xanthopoulos traces her origin to Cyprus. Patria, attributed to George Codinus, claims Theodora came from Paphlagonia. Michael the Syrian, the Chronicle of 1234 and Bar-Hebraeus place her origin in the city of Daman, near Kallinikos, Syria. They contradict Procopius by making Theodora the daughter of a priest, trained in the pious practices of Monophysitism since birth. John of Ephesus mentions an illegitimate daughter not named by Procopius. ^[3]

[edit] Early years

[edit] Origin

Theodora, of Greek Cypriot descent,^[4] was born according to some historians on the island of Crete in Greece, but others list her birthplace as Syria. Nicephorus Callistus Xanthopoulos names Theodora a native of Cyprus. Patria, attributed to George Codinus, claims Theodora came from Paphlagonia. The Patria claims she was later employed in Constantinople, spinning wool. Michael the Syrian, the Chronicle of 1234 and Bar-Hebraeus place her origin in the city of Daman, near Kallinikos, Syria. They contradict Procopius by making Theodora the daughter of a priest, trained in the pious practices of Miaphysitism since birth. She was introduced to Justinian during one of his visits to the eastern provinces and later married. These are Miaphysite sources and record her depiction among members of their creed. The Miaphysites have tended to regard Theodora as one of their own and the tradition may have been invented as a way to improve her reputation. These accounts are usually ignored in favor of Procopius. ^[5]

[edit] Childhood

Her father, Acacius, a native of Cyprus^{[6][7][8][9][10]} was a bear trainer of the Hippodrome's Blue faction in Constantinople. Her mother, whose name is not recorded but some Historians say it was also Theodora, a Pagan, born ca 465, was a dancer and an actress.^[11] After her father's death circa 512, her mother brought her children wearing garlands into the hippodrome and presented them as suppliants to the crowd. Most of the information from this earliest part of her life comes from the Secret History of Procopius, published posthumously. Critics of Procopius (whose work reveals a man seriously disillusioned with his rulers) have dismissed his work as a severely biased source, vitriolic and pornographic, but have been unable to discredit some of its facts.

Procopius narrates: "He [Justinian] took a wife: and in what manner she was born and bred, and, wedded to this man, tore up the Roman Empire by the very roots, I shall now relate. Acacius was the keeper of wild beasts used in the amphitheater in Constantinople; he belonged to the Green faction and was nicknamed the Bearkeeper. This man, during the rule of Anastasius, fell sick and died, leaving three daughters named Comito (b. ca 500), Theodora and Anastasia: of whom the eldest was not yet seven years old. His widow took a second husband, who with her undertook to keep up Acacius' family and profession. But Asterius, the dancing master of the Greens, on being bribed by another, removed this office from them and assigned it to the man who gave him the money. For the dancing masters had the power of distributing such positions as they wished." ^[12] James Allan Evans, a modern historian, notes that animal acts appeared as entr'actes between chariot races. The post of animal trainer for the various factions often passed from father to son. But Acacius left no son and the second husband of his widow had a weaker claim to the position. ^[2]

"When this woman saw the populace assembled in the amphitheater, she placed laurel wreaths on her daughters' heads and in their hands, and sent them out to sit on the ground in the attitude of suppliants. The Greens eyed this mute appeal with indifference; but the Blues were moved to bestow on the children an equal office, since their own animal-keeper had just died. When these children reached the age of girlhood, their mother put them on the local stage, for they were fair to look upon; she sent them forth, however, not all at the same time, but as each one seemed to her to have reached a suitable age. Comito, indeed, had already become one of the leading hetaerae [high class prostitutes] of the day." ^[12] Evans notes that Theodora would later favor the Blues as an empress. Which could point to them having earned her loyalty through saving her family from the threat of unemployement and poverty.^[2]

[edit] Life and reputation on stage

"Theodora, the second sister, dressed in a little tunic with sleeves, like a slave girl, waited on Comito and used to follow her about carrying on her shoulders the bench on which her favored sister was wont to sit at public gatherings. Now Theodora was still too young to know the normal relation of man with maid, but consented to the unnatural violence of villainous slaves who, following their masters to the theater, employed their leisure in this infamous manner. And for some time in a brothel she suffered such misuse. But as soon as she arrived at the age of youth, and was now ready for the world, her mother put her on the stage. Forthwith, she became a courtesan, and such as the ancient Greeks used to call a common one, at that: for she was not a flute or harp player, nor was she even trained to dance, but only gave her youth to anyone she met, in utter abandonment. Her general favors included, of course, the actors in the theater; and in their productions she took part in the low comedy scenes. For she was very funny and a good mimic, and immediately became popular in this art. There was no shame in the girl, and no one ever saw her dismayed: no role was too scandalous for her to accept without a blush." ^[12] Evans points that "Theater was considered the embodiment of immorality in the sixth century and by the end of the seventh century, the Church would succeed in banning it entirely." By the 6th century, theatrical performances were mostly limited to mime plays, "obscene burlesque". ^[2]

"She was the kind of comedienne who delights the audience by letting herself be cuffed and slapped on the cheeks, and makes them guffaw by raising her skirts to reveal to the spectators those feminine secrets here and there which custom veils from the eyes of the opposite sex. With pretended laziness she mocked her lovers, and coquettishly adopting ever new ways of embracing, was able to keep in a constant turmoil the hearts of the sophisticated. And she did not wait to be asked by anyone she met, but on the contrary, with inviting jests and a comic flaunting of her skirts herself tempted all men who passed by, especially those who were adolescent. On the field of pleasure she was never defeated. Often she would go picnicking with ten young men or more, in the flower of their strength and virility, and dallied with them all, the whole night through. When they wearied of the sport, she would approach their servants, perhaps thirty in number, and fight a duel with each of these; and even thus found no allayment of her craving. Once, visiting the house of an illustrious gentleman, they say she mounted the projecting corner of her dining couch, pulled up the front of her dress, without a blush, and thus carelessly showed her wantonness. And though she flung wide three gates to the ambassadors of Cupid, she lamented that nature had not similarly unlocked the straits of her bosom, that she might there have contrived a further welcome to his emissaries." ^[12] While Evans considers tales of entertaining notables at banquets and accepting multitudes of lovers to be mostly factual, the image of Theodora's "voracious" appetite for sexual intercourse may have more to do with rumors and lewd jokes than the actual extent of her activities. ^[2]

"Frequently, she conceived but as she employed every artifice immediately, a miscarriage was straightway effected. Often, even in the theater, in the sight of all the people, she removed her costume and stood nude in their midst, except for a girdle about the groin: not that she was abashed at revealing that, too, to the audience, but because there was a law against appearing altogether naked on the stage, without at least this much of a fig-leaf. Covered thus with a ribbon, she would sink down to the stage floor and recline on her back. Slaves to whom the duty was entrusted would then scatter grains of barley from above into the calyx of this passion flower, whence geese, trained for the purpose, would next pick the grains one by one with their bills and eat. When she rose, it was not with a blush, but she seemed rather to glory in the performance. For she was not only impudent herself, but endeavored to make everybody else as audacious. Often when she was alone with other actors she would undress in their midst and arch her back provocatively, advertising like a peacock both to those who had experience of her and to those who had not yet had that privilege her trained suppleness." ^[12] Evans points that the performance of Theodora with the geese could be a portrayal of Leda and the Swan, a tale from Greek mythology. The geese here playing the role of Zeus in the original tale. ^[2]

"So perverse was her wantonness that she should have hid not only the customary part of her person, as other women do, but her face as well. Thus those who were intimate with her were straightway recognized from that very fact to be perverts, and any more respectable man who chanced upon her in the Forum avoided her and withdrew in haste, lest the hem of his mantle, touching such a creature, might be thought to share in her pollution. For to those who saw her, especially at dawn, she was a bird of ill omen. And toward her fellow actresses she was as savage as a scorpion: for she was very malicious." ^[12]

In "Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527-1204" (1999) by Lynda Garland it is noted that John of Ephesus reports Theodora coming from a brothel. Unlike Procopius, John happened to be a favourite of the Empress and his historical portrayal of his patron is mostly positive. Garland points that while it confirms Procopius' account of Theodora as a prostitute, there seems to be little reason to believe she worked out of a brothel "managed by a pimp". Employment as an actress at the time would include both "indecent exhibitions on stage" and providing sexual services off stage. In what Garland calls the "sleazy entertainment business in the capital", Theodora would earn her living by a combination of her theatrical and sexual skills. Garland considers it important that John was familiar with Theodora's background. He was not a resident of Constantinople and his autobiographical accounts do not include even visiting the capital until Theodora was well into her career as an Empress. This would imply that Theodora's background as an actress and courtesan was general knowledge at the time of Justinian's reign. ^[13]

[edit] Travels

"Later, she followed Hecebolus, a Tyrian who had been made governor of Pentapolis, serving him in the basest of ways; but finally she quarreled with him and was sent summarily away. Consequently, she found herself destitute of the means of life, which she proceeded to earn by prostitution, as she had done before this adventure. She came thus to Alexandria, and then traversing all the East, worked her way to Constantinople; in every city plying a trade (which it is safer, I fancy, in the sight of God not to name too clearly) as if the Devil were determined there be no land on earth that should not know the sins of Theodora." ^[12] Evans points that her motivation in following Hecebolus could be in seeking a way to escape her profession. A law established in 409 under the reign of Theodosius II, "barred local authorities from transferring actors from their cities". In effect also limiting the ability of actors to travel to other cities. Theodora "might have encountered legal obstacles to her desertion of the stage" and relied on the protection of Hecebolus to manage overcoming them. She is said by later sources to have met the Patriarch Timothy III in Alexandria, who was Monophysite, and it was at that time that she converted to Monophysite Christianity. ^[2]

Procopius later narrates Theodora finding an ally during the period of her travels. "There was a certain dancer named Macedonia, who belonged to the Blue party in Antioch, who came to possess much influence. For she used to write letters to Justinian while Justin was still Emperor, and so made away with whatever notable men in the East she had a grudge against, and had their property confiscated. This Macedonia, they say, greeted Theodora at the time of her arrival from Egypt and Libya; and when she saw her badly worried and cast down at the ill treatment she had received from Hecebolus and at the loss of her money during this adventure, she tried to encourage Theodora by reminding her of the laws of chance, by which she was likely again to be the leader of a chorus of coins. Then, they say, Theodora used to relate how on that very night a dream came to her, bidding her take no thought of money, for when she should come to Constantinople, she should share the couch of the King of the Devils, and that she should contrive to become his wedded wife and thereafter be the mistress of all the money in the world. And that this is what happened is the opinion of most people." ^[14] Procopius previously portrays Justinian as a demon in human form. "Indeed, how was this man likely to be anything but an evil spirit, who never knew honest satiety of drink or food or sleep, but only tasting at random from the meals that were set before him, roamed the palace at unseemly hours of the night, and was possessed by the quenchless lust of a demon?"^[15]

Evans notes that Justinian had succeeded Vitalian as magister militum in praesenti and that Macedonia seems to have served as one of his informants. The modern historian dismisses tales of dreams and demons. He notes that Macedonia serves as the first known link between Theodora and Justinian. There are theories that the informant was the one who introduced the later imperial couple to each other. However Procopius is silent on the subject and the connections remains a conjecture. ^[2]

[edit] Mistress and wife of Justinian

"Thus was this woman born and bred, and her name was a byword beyond that of other common wrenches on the tongues of all men. But when she came back to Constantinople, Justinian fell violently in love with her. At first, he kept her only as a mistress, though he raised her to patrician rank. Through him Theodora was immediately able to acquire an unholy power and exceedingly great riches. she seemed to him the sweetest thing in the world, and, like all lovers, he desired to please his charmer with every possible favor and requite her with all his wealth. The extravagance added fuel to the flames of passion. With her now to help spend his money he plundered the people more than ever, not only in the capital, but throughout the Roman Empire. As both of them had for a long time been of the Blue Party, they gave this faction almost complete control of the affairs of state. It was long afterward that the worst of this evil was checked. ^[12]

"Now as long as the former Empress was alive, Justinian was unable to find a way to make Theodora his wedded wife. In this one matter she opposed him as in nothing else: for the lady abhorred vice, being a rustic and of barbarian descent, as I have shown. She was never able to do any real good, because of her continued ignorance of the affairs of state. She dropped her original name, for fear people would think it ridiculous, and adopted the name of Euphemia when she came to the palace. But finally her death removed this obstacle to Justinian's desire. Justin, doting and utterly senile, was now the laughing stock of his subjects; he was disregarded by everyone because of his inability to oversee state affairs. But for Justinian, they all served with considerable awe. His everything was in his hand, and his passion for turmoil created universal consternation." ^[16]

"It was then that he undertook to complete his marriage with Theodora. But as it was impossible for a man of senatorial rank to make a courtesan his wife, this being forbidden by ancient law, he made the Emperor nullify this ordinance by creating a new one, permitting him to wed Theodora, and consequently making it possible for anyone else to marry a courtesan. Immediately after this he seized the power of the Emperor, veiling his usurpation with a transparent pretext: for he was proclaimed colleague of his uncle as Emperor of the Romans by the questionable legality of an election inspired by terror. So Justinian and Theodora ascended the imperial throne three days before Easter, a time, indeed, when even making visits or greeting one's friends is forbidden. And not many days later Justin died of an illness, after a reign of nine years. Justinian was now sole monarch, together, of course, with Theodora." ^[17] Evans notes that the new law can be found in in the Corpus Juris Civilis.^[2]

In fact it is included in Book 5, title 4, chapter 23. "Deeming it the proper subject of imperial benevolence to investigate and at all times foster the advantages of our subjects, we think that the errors also of women, through which, on account of the frailty of their sex, they may choose a mode of life unworthy of their honor, should be corrected by proper restraint, so that they may not be deprived of the hope of a better condition, but may look forward to that and thus more easily avoid an inconsiderate and dishonorable alliance. For we believe that we can thus imitate, as much as it possible for us to do, the benevolence and great clemency of God to the human race, who contescends always to pardon the daily sins of men, to receive our rependance and to lend us back to a better condition: if we fail to do this in the case of those subjected to our sway, we shall be unworthy of forgiveness." ^[18]

• "Thus since it would be unjust that slaves should be able to receive their freedom by imperial indulgence and be restored to their natural rights so as to live, upon bestowal of imperial beneficence of that kind, as if they had never been slaves and had always been free born, but that women, who have been on the stage, but who have changed their mind and have abandoned a dishonorable profession, should have no hope of imperial beneficence which might lead them back to the condition in which they might have lived if they had not sinned, we grant them by this beneficent imperial sanction the right that, if they abandon their dishonorable conduct, and embrace a better and honorable mode of life, they may supplicate our majesty, and they will unhesitatingly be granted asn imperial rescript permitting to enter into a legal marriage."^[19]
• "Persons who marry them need not fear that such alliance will be invalid under the provisions of our former laws, but may be confident that such matrimony shall be as valid as if their wives had not previously lived any dishonorable life, whether the husbands possess a title or are otherwise forbidden to marry women that have been on the stage, provided that such alliance must be proven by marriage documents, and not otherwise."^[20]
• "Such women shall be entirely cleansed of all stain as if they had been returned to their natal condition. No dishonor shall adhere to them, and we want no difference to exist between them and those who have not sinned in a similar matter". ^[21]

The same law also includes regulations making children produced by said marriages legitimate, gives the former actresses rights to inherit estates and transfer property to others prior to their marriage and allows women who hold titles to marry beneath their station. The daughters of actresses also had legal limitations. The future daughters of former actresses benefiting from this law had no such limitations. Already living daughters of former actresses could petition the emperor to remove such legal restrictions from them. The law extended the right to petition also to daughters of active actresses. The law also retroactively acknowledged already existing marital alliances between partners of unequal status, legitimizing their status. Justin makes a point however that the marital alliances permitted by the law should not be "nefarious" or "incestuous" ^[22]

"Thus it was that Theodora, though born and brought up as I have related, rose to royal dignity over all obstacles. For no thought of shame came to Justinian in marrying her, though he might have taken his pick of the noblest born, most highly educated, most modest, carefully nurtured, virtuous and beautiful virgins of all the ladies in the whole Roman Empire: a maiden, as they say, with upstanding breasts. Instead, he preferred to make his own what had been common to all men, alike, careless of all her revealed history, took in wedlock a woman who was not only guilty of every other contamination but boasted of her many abortions." ... "However, not a single member of even the Senate, seeing this disgrace befalling the State, dared to complain or forbid the event; but all of them bowed down before her as if she were a goddess. Nor was there a priest who showed any resentment, but all hastened to greet her as Highness. And the populace who had seen her before on the stage, directly raised its hands to proclaim itself her slave in fact and in name. Nor did any soldier grumble at being ordered to risk the perils of war for the benefit of Theodora, nor was there any man on earth who ventured to oppose her. Confronted with this disgrace, they all yielded, I suppose, to necessity, for it was as if Fate were giving proof of its power to control mortal affairs as malignantly as it pleases, showing that its decrees need not always be according to reason or human propriety. Thus does Destiny sometimes raise mortals suddenly to lofty heights in defiance of reason, in challenge to all out cries of injustice; but admits no obstacle, urging on his favorites to the appointed goal without let or hindrance. But as this is the will of God, so let it befall and be written."^[23]

[edit] Description

"Now Theodora was fair of face and of a very graceful, though small, person; her complexion was moderately colorful, if somewhat pale; and her eyes were dazzling and vivacious. All eternity would not be long enough to allow one to tell her escapades while she was on the stage, but the few details I have mentioned above should be sufficient to demonstrate the woman's character to future generations." ^[24]

[edit] Ascent to the Byzantine throne

Justinian was crowned augustus (emperor) and Theodora augusta on April 4, 527, giving them control of the Byzantine Empire. A contemporary official, Joannes Laurentius Lydus, remarked that she was "superior in intelligence to any man".^[25] Justinian clearly recognized this as well, allowing her to share his throne and take active part in decision making. As Justinian writes, he consulted Theodora when he promulgated a constitution that included reforms meant to end corruption by public officials.^[26]

The imperial status of Theodora also proved profitable for her relatives. Her sister Comito became the wife of a rising young officer, Sittas, though he was to die young while campaigning in Armenia. Her niece Sophia married the nephew of Justinian, Justin II, who succeeded his uncle in 565.

[edit] Partnership in power

According to Procopius: "What she and her husband did together must now be briefly described: for neither did anything without the consent of the other. For some time it was generally supposed they were totally different in mind and action; but later it was revealed that their apparent disagreement had been arranged so that their subjects might not unanimously revolt against them, but instead be divided in opinion."

"Thus they split the Christians into two parties, each pretending to take the part of one side, thus confusing both, as I shall soon show; and then they ruined both political factions. Theodora feigned to support the Blues with all her power, encouraging them to take the offensive against the opposing party and perform the most outrageous deeds of violence; while Justinian, affecting to be vexed and secretly jealous of her, also pretended he could not openly oppose her orders. And thus they gave the impression often that they were acting in opposition. Then he would rule that the Blues must be punished for their crimes, and she would angrily complain that against her will she was defeated by her husband. However, the Blue partisans, as I have said, seemed cautious, for they did not violate their neighbors as much as they might have done." ^[27]

"And in legal disputes each of the two would pretend to favor one of the litigants, and compel the man with the worse case to win: and so they robbed both disputants of most of the property at issue. In the same way, the Emperor, taking many persons into his intimacy, gave them offices by power of which they could defraud the State to the limits of their ambition. And as soon as they had collected enough plunder, they would fall out of favor with Theodora, and straightway be ruined. At first he would affect great sympathy in their behalf, but soon he would somehow lose his confidence in them, and an air of doubt would darken his zeal in their behalf. Then Theodora would use them shamefully, while he, unconscious as it were of what was being done to them, confiscated their properties and boldly enjoyed their wealth. By such well-planned hypocrisies they confused the public and, pretending to be at variance with each other, were able to establish a firm and mutual tyranny." ^[28]

[edit] Courtly life

Procopius gives as a rather biased account of Theodora's daily routine at court. "Her body she treated with more care than was necessary, yet less than she herself could have wished. For instance, she used to enter the bath very early and quit it very late, and after finishing her bathing, she would go thence to her breakfast. After partaking of breakfast she would rest. At luncheon, however, and dinner she partook of all manner of foods and drinks; and sleep for long stretches of time would constantly lay hold of her, both in the daytime up to nightfall and at night up to sunrise; and though she had to such an extent strayed into every path of incontinence for so long a portion of the day, she claimed the right to administer the whole Roman Empire. And if the Emperor should impose any task upon a man without her consent, that man's affairs would suffer such a turn of fortune that not long thereafter he would be dismissed from his office with the greatest indignities and would die a most shameful death."^[29]

"Now for Justinian it was rather easy to manage everything, not only because of his easy-going disposition, but also because he rarely slept, as has been stated, and was the most accessible person in the world. For even men of low estate and altogether obscure had complete freedom, not merely to come before this tyrant, but also to converse with him and to enjoy confidential relations with him. The Empress, on the other hand, could not be approached even by one of the magistrates, except at the expense of much time and labour, but, actually, they all had to wait constantly upon her convenience with a servile kind of assiduity, waiting in a small and stuffy anteroom for an endless time. For it was a risk beyond bearing for any one of the officials to be absent. And they stood there constantly upon the tips of their toes, each one straining to hold his head higher than the persons next to him, in order that the eunuchs when they came out might see him. And some of them were summoned at last, after many days, and going in to her presence in great fear they very quickly departed, having simply done obeisance and having touched the instep of each of her feet with the tips of their lips. For there was no opportunity to speak or to make any request unless she bade them to do so. For the Government had sunk into a servile condition, having her as slave-instructor. Thus the Roman State was being ruined partly by the tyrant, who seemed too good-natured, and partly by Theodora, who was harsh and exceedingly difficult. For whereas in the good-nature of the one there was instability, in the difficult nature of the other there was a bar to action."^[29] Garland points that this seems to have been a deliberate method of asserting her own position of power above them. ^[30]

Theodora had a marked effect on court ceremony, adding an element of orientalism in enhancing the submission to the imperial person. She also insisted on the Empress receiving the same salute as the Emperor from those who attended the court. She was apparently the first Empress to do so. ^[30] According to Procopius, "Among the innovations of Justinian and Theodora in the administration of the Government there is also the following. In ancient times the Senate, as it came into the Emperor's presence, was accustomed to do obeisance in the following manner. Any man of patrician rank saluted him on the right breast. And the Emperor would kiss him on the head and then dismiss him; but all the rest first bent the right knee to the Emperor and then withdrew. The Empress, however, it was not at all customary to salute. But in the case of Justinian and Theodora, all the other members of the Senate and those as well who held the rank of Patricians, whenever they entered into their presence, would prostrate themselves to the floor, flat on their faces, and holding their hands and feet stretched far out they would touch with their lips one foot of each before rising.For even Theodora was not disposed to forego this testimony to her dignity, she who acted as though the Roman Empire lay at her feet, but was by no means averse to receiving even the ambassadors of the Persians and of the other barbarians and to bestowing upon them presents of money, a thing which had never happened since the beginning of time. And while in earlier times those who attended upon the Emperor used simply to call him "Emperor" and his consort "Empress," and used to address each one of the other magistrates in accordance with his standing at the moment, yet if anyone should enter into conversation with either one of these two and should use the words "Emperor" are "Empress" and fail to call them "Master" or "Mistress," or should undertake to use any other word but "slaves" in referring to any of the magistrates, such a person would be accounted both stupid and too free of tongue, and, as though he had erred most grievously and had treated with gross indignity those whom he should by no means have so treated, would leave the imperial presence."^[31]

"And whereas in former times very few persons entered the Palace, and that too with difficulty, yet since the time when these succeeded to the throne, both magistrates and all others together remained constantly in the Palace. And the reason was that in the old days the magistrates were permitted to do what was just and lawful according to their own judgment. Hence the magistrates, being occupied with their own administrative business, used to remain in their own lodgings, and the subjects of the Emperor, since they neither saw nor heard of any act of violence, bothered him, as was to be expected, very little. But these rulers, always drawing all matters into their own hands to the ruin of their subjects, compelled everybody to dance attendance upon them in most servile fashion; and it was possible to see, practically every day, all the law-courts, on the one hand, for the most part empty, but at the Emperor's Court, on the contrary, one would find crowds and insolence and mighty pushing and all the time nothing but servility. And those who were supposed to be intimate with the royal pair, standing there continuously the entire day and regularly during the greater portion of the night, being without sleep and without food at the usual hours, were done to death, and this was all that their seeming good fortune amounted to. And when at length they were set free from all this, the poor fellows would quarrel with each other over the question of what had become of the money of the Romans. For whereas some maintained that it was all in the possession of the barbarians, others said that the Emperor kept it shut up in a large number of special rooms. So when Justinian either, if he is a man, departs this life, or, as being the Lord of the evil spirits, lays his life aside, all who have the fortune to have survived to that time will know the truth." ^[32]

Garland points that for all the accusations against Theodora included in the "Secret History", there is one missing. There is no mention of her being unfaithful to Justinian. Procopius delights in describing how his other favorite female target, Antonina, cuckolded Belisarius. He remains silent on Theodora. Instead he mentions her own actions to counter the only rumor concerning her loyalty that is mentioned in the entire work. ^[33] "And at one time a suspicion arose that Theodora was smitten with love of one of the domestics, Areobindus by name, a man of barbarian lineage but withal handsome and young, whom she herself had, as it chanced, appointed to be steward; so she, wishing to combat the charge, though they say that she did love the man desperately, decided for the moment to maltreat him most cruelly for no real cause, and after we knew nothing at all about the man, nor has anyone seen him to this day."^[34]

A repetitive complain of Procopius was that Theodora treated serious matters as subjects of ridicule. However Garland noted the examples he cites do not seem all that serious. ^[30]"Indeed she also made it her business, whenever it seemed best to her, to change even the most serious matters to an occasion for buffoonery, as though she were on the stage in the theatre. And on a certain occasion one of the patricians, an old man who had spent a long time in office — whose name I shall by no means mention, though I know it well, that I may not indefinitely prolong the disgrace which fell upon him — being unable to collect a debt from one of the Empress' servants who owed him a large sum, appealed to her in order to lay a charge against the man who had made a contract with him and to entreat her to assist him to obtain justice. But Theodora, learning of his purpose in advance, instructed the eunuchs that when the patrician came before her, they should all stand about him in a circle and should listen attentively to her as she spoke, suggesting to them what words they should say in the manner of a "response." And when the patrician entered the women's quarters, he did his obeisance before her in the customary manner, and with a face that seemed stained with tears, said, "Mistress, it is a grievous thing for a man of patrician rank to be in need of money. For that which in the case of other men calls forth forgiveness and compassion is accounted outrageous in men of my rank. For in the case of any other man in extreme destitution, it is possible, simply by stating this fact to his creditors, to escape straightway from the embarrassment, but if a man of patrician rank should not have the means to meet his obligations to his creditors, most likely he would be ashamed to mention it, but if he did mention it, he would never be believed, since all men would feel that it is not a possible thing for poverty to be a housemate of a man of this class. But if he does win belief, it will fall to his lot to suffer the most shameful and distressing affliction of all [social disgrace]. Now, my Mistress, I do have financial relations with men, some of whom have loaned their substance to me, and some have borrowed from me. As for my creditors, who most persistently dog my steps, I am unable through the shame proper to my position to put them off, while as for those who are in debt to me, since they happen not to be patricians, they take refuge in certain inhuman excuses. Therefore I entreat and supplicate and beg you to assist me in obtaining my rights and in escaping from my present ills." So he spoke. And the woman replied, in sing-song, "O Patrician So-and‑So" (naming him), and the chorus of eunuchs, catching up the strain, said responsively, "It's a large hernia you have!" And when the man again made supplication and uttered words resembling what he had said before, the woman replied again in the same strain and the chorus chanted the response, until the poor wretch in despair made his obeisance in the customary manner and departing thence went home."^[29]Garland notes that the scene took place in "the relative seclusion" of the women's courters where Theodora could drop the imperial ceremonial seriousness and engage in private jokes. ^[30]

Procopius other example of ridiculing serious matters concerns the marriage of two aristocratic girls. "There were two girls in Byzantium who were sisters; they were not only the offspring of a consular father and of three generations of Consuls, but drew their lineage from men who from remote times were of the foremost blood of the whole Senate. These had previously entered into marriage, but it had come about by the death of their husbands that they became widows. And immediately Theodora selected two men — men who were not only of the common herd, but also disgusting fellows — and made it her business to mate them with the women, whom she charged with living unchaste lives. And they, fearing lest this be brought to pass, fled into the Church of Sophia, and coming into the holy baptismal chamber, they seized with their hands the font which is there. But the Empress Theodora inflicted upon them such dire constraint and suffering that in their desire to escape these woes they became eager enough to accept the marriage in place of them. Thus for her no place remained undefiled or inviolate. So these women, against their wills, were united in marriage to men who were beggars and outcasts, much beneath them in standing, although noble suitors were at hand for them. And their mother, who also had become a widow, not daring to groan or to cry out at the calamity, attended the betrothal. But later Theodora, by way of expiating the scandal, decided to console them at the expense of public misfortunes. For she appointed both of the men magistrates. But no comfort came to the girls even so, and woes incurable and unbearable fell from the hands of these men upon practically all their subordinates." ^[35] Garland points that there is a common denominator in both incidents, inflicting ridicule on members of the aristocracy. She suggests Theodora might have been inflicting vengeance against the pretenses of an aristocratic class which looked down on the low-born empress. ^[30]

Procopius finally narrates that Theodora spend much of the year in the palace of Herion on the on the Asiatic shore of the Bosporus. "She lived the greatest part of the year in the suburbs on the seashore, and particularly in the place called Herion, and consequently the large retinue of attendants were grievously afflicted. For they had a scant supply of provisions and they were exposed to the dangers of the sea, particularly when a storm came down, as often happened, or when the whale made a descent somewhere in the neighbourhood." ^[29] The whale mentioned was Porphyrion, harassing the shipping in the waters of the Bosporus for a period of fifty years in the 6th century. Procopius gives a more detailed account of it in "The Wars". ^[36]

[edit] Events of the reign

John Malalas lists the building projects of Justinian during the first year of his reign (527-528). He then lists the projects of the "most devout" Theodora for the same period. The first mentioned by name was a church dedicated to Michael the Archangel and built in Antioch. Next mentioned is the Basilica of Anatolius, also located in Antioch. He places special attention to the columns of the Basilica being send there from Constantinople. He also mentions Theodora sending a cross decorated with pearls to Jerusalem. ^[37]

According to John Malalas, Eulalios, a Comes domesticorum with financial difficulties, died and left the care of his three daughters to Justinian in 528. Malalas notes that he did not leave an estate sufficient for their care, nor sufficient amounts for the dowries and properties intended in his will. Justinian assigned Makedonios as curator of their inheritance. He was charged with repaying any debts left to the orphan girls. The three were placed in the custody of Theodora and "looked after in the imperial apartments". By imperial decision the dowries and properties originally intended for them would be provided by funds of the imperial couple. Garland considers it a case of Theodora taking interest in women's issues. ^[38]

In 529, Malalas records a visit of Theodora to Pythion (Yalova), in particular its hot springs. She was accompanied by patricians, cubicularii (chamberlains, the Comes sacrarum largitionum (Master of the 'Sacred Largess', who operated the imperial finances) and an overall retinue of no less than four thousand people. He lists her generous donations to churches she visited in her short journey. Theophanes the Confessor gives a listing of the high-ranking courtiers accompanying her. He makes a dating mistake, placing the visit in 532. Garland considers the imperial splendor of an otherwise uneventful trip to a spa an indication of Theodora having adapted to heading "an intricate and formal court". ^[30]

Theodora proved herself a worthy and able leader during the Nika riots. There were two rival political factions in the Empire, the Blues and the Greens, which started a riot stemming from many grievances in January 532, during a chariot race in the hippodrome. The rioters set many public buildings on fire and proclaimed a new emperor. Theodora proved herself ruthless, as it was her will that Pompeius and Hypatius, the nephews of Anastasius I, be put to death when the mob had chosen Hypatius to replace Justinian. Unable to control the mob, Justinian and his officials prepared to flee. At a meeting of the government council, Theodora spoke out against leaving the palace and underlined the significance of someone who died as a ruler instead of living as nothing. Her determined speech convinced them all. As a result, Justinian ordered his loyal troops led by two reliable officers, Belisarius and Mundus, to attack the demonstrators in the hippodrome. His generals attacked the hippodrome, killing over 30,000 rebels. Historians agree that it was Theodora's courage and decisiveness that saved Justinian's reign.

Following the Nika revolt, Justinian and Theodora reformed Constantinople and made it the most splendid city the world had seen for centuries, building or rebuilding aqueducts, bridges and more than twenty five churches. The greatest of these is Hagia Sophia, considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and one of the architectural wonders of the world.

The "Buildings of Justinian" by Procopius mentions Theodora involved in several other projects. He starts by mentioning a hospice located between Hagia Sophia and Hagia Irene. "Between these two churches there was a certain hospice, devoted to those who were at once destitute and suffering from serious illness, those who were, namely, suffering in loss of both property and health. This was erected in early times by a certain pious man, Samson by name. And neither did this remain untouched by the rioters [in the Nika riots], but it caught fire together with the churches on either side of it and was destroyed. The Emperor Justinian rebuilt it, making it a nobler building in the beauty of its structure, and much larger in the number of its rooms. He has also endowed it with a generous annual income of money, to the end that through all time the ills of more sufferers may be cured. But by no means feeling either a surfeit or any sort of weariness in shewing honour to God, he established two other hospices opposite to this one in the buildings called respectively the House of Isidorus and the House of Arcadius, the Empress Theodora labouring with him in this most holy undertaking." ^[39] He also mentions Theodora involved in the building of a xenodocheion.^[37] When mentioning the building projects of Justinian in Bithynia, Procopius mentions Theodora involved in the road which had fallen into disrepair. "There is a certain road in Bithynia leading from there into the Phrygian territory, on which it frequently happened that countless men and beasts too perished in the winter season. The soil of this region is exceedingly deep; and not only after unusual deluges of rain or the final melting of very heavy snows, but even after occasional showers it turns into a deep and impassable marsh, making the roads quagmires, with the result that travellers on that road were frequently drowned. But he himself and the Empress Theodora, by their wise generosity, removed this danger for wayfarers. They laid a covering of very large stones over this highway for a distance of one half a day's journey for an unencumbered traveller and so brought it about that travellers on that road could get through on the hard pavement."^[40] She also took interest in projects located in North Africa. "First, then, he cared for Carthage, which now, very properly, is called Justinianê, rebuilding the whole circuit-wall, which had fallen down, and digging around it a moat which it had not had before. ... He built stoas on either side of what is called the Maritime Forum, and a public bath, a fine sight, which they have named Theodorianae, after the Empress." ... "In the surrounding region, which is called Proconsularis, there was an unwalled city, Vaga by name, which could be captured not only by a planned attack of the barbarians, but even if they merely chanced to be passing that way. This place the Emperor Justinian surrounded with very strong defences and made it worthy to be called a city, and capable of affording safe protection to its inhabitants. And they, having received this favour, now call the city Theodorias in honour of the Empress."^[41]

Theodora also created her own centers of power. The eunuch Narses, who in old age developed into a brilliant general, was her protege, and so was the praetorian prefect Peter Barsymes. John the Cappadocian, Justinian's chief tax collector, was identified as her enemy, because of his independent influence.

[edit] Legislation

Theodora participated in Justinian's legal and spiritual reforms, and her involvement in the increase of the rights of women was substantial. Garland points several laws of Justinian who seem surprisingly favorable to women. Until 528, laws about rape only concerned women above the rank of barmaids, effectively making the rape of lower-class women and slaves legal. In 528, a law on sexual offenses changed the status considerably. Rapists and kidnappers of women, both free-women and female slaves, were given the capital punishment. The law also included sections against the unlawful seduction of women. A 534 law made it illegal to force any woman on the theatrical stage without their consent, regardless if said woman was free or a slave. In 535, laws against procurers address the specific problem of those who force underage girls into prostitution. The law mentions the practice of procurers first luring young girls at the age of ten or younger away from their parents with promises of food and clothing and secondly forcing said girls "into a life of unchastity". This was rendered illegal by this law and promises or agreements between the girls and their pimps were clarified as illegal as well. The same year, another law dictates that marriages are created by "mutual affection", not agreements on the dowry. The repudiation of women who married without dowry was therefore rendered illegal. A 537 law allowed actresses to renounce their occupation at will. Attempts to force them to continue the employment by invoking oaths or previous agreements were rendered illegal and punishable by fines. Garland notes that Theodora, having first-hand experience with the hardships faced by the women of the lower classes, was likely to be the motivating force behind laws attempting to improve their living conditions. However Justinian seems to have continued reforms in that direction even following her death. For example, a 559 law put an end to the practice of women being imprisoned on charges of debt. They were to remain free and attempt to repay their debts. The same law changed the status of women held prisoners for more serious offenses. They were to be placed in monasteries in the care of nuns or placed under guard of other "reliable" women. The law specifies that the law was an attempt to prevent the rape and ill-treatment of female prisoners. ^[42] Theodora had laws passed that closed brothels. She also expanded the rights of women in divorce and property ownership, instituted the death penalty for rape, forbade exposure of unwanted infants, gave mothers some guardianship rights over their children, and forbade the killing of a wife who committed adultery.

Evagrius Scholasticus considers the severity of treatment for men accused of rape to have been excessive and adds it to his mostly negative portrayal of Justinian. ^[43]By his account: "Justinian was insatiable in the acquisition of wealth, and so excessively covetous of the property of others, that he sold for money the whole body of his subjects to those who were entrusted with offices or who were collectors of tributes, and to whatever persons were disposed to entrap others by groundless charges. He stripped of their entire property innumerable wealthy persons, under colour of the emptiest pretexts. If even a prostitute, marking out an individual as a victim, raised a charge of criminal intercourse [rape] against him, all law was at once rendered vain, and by making Justinian her associate in dishonest gain, she transferred to herself the whole wealth of the accused person." ^[44] The Secret History contains the information that sexual offenses were handled by the magistrate who held the office of "Quaesitor", a new office created as part of Justinian's administrative reforms. "Just as if the offices which had long been established did not suffice him for this purpose, he invented two additional magistracies to have charge of the State, although before that time the Prefect of the City was wont to deal with all the complaints. But to the end that the sycophants [public informers] might be ever more numerous and that he might maltreat much more expeditiously the persons of citizens who had done no wrong, he decided to institute these new offices. And to one of the two he gave jurisdiction over thieves, as he pretended, giving it the name of "Praetor of the Plebs"; and to the other office he assigned the province of punishing those who were habitually practising sodomy and those who had such intercourse with women as was prohibited by law, and any who did not worship the Deity in the orthodox way, giving the name of "Quaesitor" to this magistrate. Now the Praetor, if he found among the peculations any of great worth, would deliver these monies to the Emperor, saying that the owners of it were nowhere to be found. Thus the Emperor was always able to get a share of the most valuable plunder. And the one who was called Quaesitor, when he got under his power those who had fallen foul of him, would deliver to the Emperor whatever he wished to give up, while he himself would become rich none the less, in defiance of all law, on the property of other men. For the subordinates of these officials would neither bring forward accusers nor submit witnesses of what had been done, but throughout this whole period the unfortunates who fell in their way continued, without having been accused or convicted, and with the greatest secrecy, to be murdered as well as robbed of their money." ^[45]

According to John Malalas, Theodora took personal action against pimps and brothel-keepers who held poor girls under contract as early as 528. She would pay up to five solidi for each girl to free them from any obligation to their former employers. The price was set to the amount the brothel-keepers claimed they had paid to acquire the girls. The girls were to be provided with a solidus and a set of clothes for each of them. They were then supposedly dismissed to their own devices. Garland notes that under Justinian and Theodora brothels were outlawed. As of 535, brothel-keepers would no longer be able to receive any money for losing control of their girls. Laws of the year dictated that they would be punished by corporal punishment and exile. ^[46] Justinian and Theodora eventually created a convent on the Asian side of the Dardanelles called the Metanoia (Repentance), where the ex-prostitutes could support themselves.The main account on the subject is given in the "Buildings of Justinian" by Procopius. "There was a throng of women in Byzantium who had carried on in brothels a business of lechery, not of their own free will, but under force of lust. For it was maintained by brothel-keepers, and inmates of such houses were obliged at any and all times to practise lewdness, and pairing off at a moment's notice with strange men as they chanced to come along, they submitted to their embraces. For there had been a numerous body of procurers in the city from ancient times, conducting their traffic in licentiousness in brothels and selling others' youth in the public market-place and forcing virtuous persons into slavery. But the Emperor Justinian and the Empress Theodora, who always shared a common piety in all that they did, devised the following plan. They cleansed the state of the pollution of the brothels, banishing the very name of brothel-keepers, and they set free from a licentiousness fit only for slaves the women who were struggling with extreme poverty, providing them with independent maintenance, and setting virtue free. This they accomplished as follows. Near that shore of the strait which is on the right as one sails toward the Sea called Euxine, they made what had formerly been a palace into an imposing convent designed to serve as a refuge for women who repented of their past lives, so that there through the occupation which their minds would have with the worship of God and with religion they might be able to cleanse away the sins of their lives in the brothel. Therefore they call this domicile of such women "Repentance," in keeping with its purpose. And these Sovereigns have endowed this convent with an ample income of money, and have added many buildings most remarkable for their beauty and costliness, to serve as a consolation for the women, so that they should never be compelled to depart from the practice of virtue in any manner whatsoever. So much, then, for this."^[47] Procopius also gives a less flowery description of the convent in his Secret History. According to it the prostitutes were sent there against their consent. He ignores Justinian and places blame for creation of the convent exclusively on Theodora. "But Theodora also concerned herself to devise punishments for sins against the body. Harlots, for instance, to the number of more than five hundred who plied their trade in the midst of the market-place at the rate of three obols — just enough to live on — she gathered together, and sending them over to the opposite mainland she confined them in the Convent of Repentance, as it is called, trying there to compel them to adopt a new manner of life. And some of them threw themselves down from a height at night and thus escaped the unwelcome transformation."^[48]

John of Nikiû would later compare Theodora to some of the greatest reformers in Roman history for her campaign against prostitution. "There was a man named Romulus who had founded the great city of Rome; and likewise another who came after him named Numa, who adorned the city of Rome with institutions and laws, and subsequently established three orders in the empire. And so also subsequently did the great Caesar and Augustus also after him. And it was through these that the virtues of the Romans were shown forth, and these institutions are maintained among them until this day, And subsequently came the empress Theodora, the consort of the emperor Justinian, who put an end to the prostitution of women, and gave orders for their expulsion from every place." ^[49]

[edit] Involvement in affairs of Praejecta

Theodora participated in matters of dynastic policy as evidenced by her involvement in the marriages of Praejecta. ^[50] Praejecta was a niece to Justinian by blood and Theodora by marriage. She was a daughter of Vigilantia and Dulcidio (or Dulcissimus), respectively the sister and brother-in-law of Justinian. She was also a sister of later emperor Justin II. She was initially married to Areobindus. ^[51] According to the "History of the Later Roman Empire from the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian" (1923) by John Bagnell Bury, Solomon, Praetorian prefect of Africa was killed in the Battle of Cillium (544) against the joined forces of various tribes of the Moors. His nephew Sergius, previously Dux of Tripolitania, was appointed as his replacement and left to continue the conflict with the Moors. Bury regards Sergius to have been "incompetent, arrogant, and debauched". He quarreled with his own officers while "the Imperial rule in Africa was again in grave danger". Justinian send reinforcements under Areobindus. "Instead of superseding him, he despatched a second incompetent commander, the patrician Areobindus, who had married his own niece Praejecta. He made Areobindus co-ordinate with Sergius, but he was to command the army of Byzacena, Sergius that of Numidia. The two generals did not agree, and misfortune ensued. The Byzacene forces, relying on the support of Sergius, who left them in the lurch, were severely defeated at Thacia, between Sicca Veneria (El Kef) and Carthage (end of A.D. 545). After this disaster Sergius was relieved of his post and Areobindus replaced him. He was a man of little merit, and in a few months he was removed by a conspiracy. Guntarith, the duke of Numidia, aspired to play the part of Stotzas, and having come to an understanding with some of the Moorish chiefs, he suddenly seized the palace at Carthage, and Areobindus was assassinated (March A.D. 546). Praejecta fell into the hands of Guntarith, who formed the plan of marrying her. But Guntarith's supremacy last little over a month. A portion of the army remained loyal and found a leader in an Armenian officer, Artabanes, who brought about the murder of the rebel at a banquet (May). Justinian appointed Artabanes Master of Soldiers of Africa, and Praejecta offered her hand to her deliverer. But Artabanes was already married and Theodora refused to permit a divorce. He followed Praejecta to Constantinople, and the Emperor tried to console him by creating him Master of Soldiers in praesenti and Count of the Federates." ^[52] Praejecta was instead arranged to marry Ioannes (John), son of Pompeius and Anastasia. Pompeius was a son of Flavius Secundinus, Roman Consul in 511 and Caesaria. His mother was a sister of a previous emperor, Anastasius I (reigned 491-518). Pompeius and his brother Hypatius were executed in 532 for their role in the Nika riots. ^[53]

Bury gave a more detailed description of the affair in his "A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene (395 A.D. -800 A.D.)" (1889). "Artabanes, the commander of Africa, had overthrown the usurper Gontharis and delivered from his hands the Emperor's niece Praejecta, whose husband Areobindus had been put to death by the tyrant. From gratitude, not from love, Praejecta consented to become the wife of Artabanes, who aspired to an alliance with the imperial house;and the count of Africa hastened to surrender the newly conferred dignity and obtain his recall from Justinian, that he might return to Constantinople, whither Praejecta had preceeded him, and celebrate the marriage. He was received with open arms in the capital;he became magister militum in praesenti and captain of the foederati; his tall and dignified stature, his consise speech, and his generocity won the admiration of all. But an unexpected obstacle to the proposed marriage occurred in the person of a previous wife, whom he had put away many years before. As long as Artabanes was an obscure individual the lady was contented to leave him in peace and give no sign of her existence;but when he suddenly rose to fame, she determined to assert her conjugal rights ,and, as a wronged woman, she implored the aid of Theodora. The Empress "whose nature it was to undertake the cause of injured women," compelled the unwilling master of soldiers to take his wife once more to his bosom, and Praejecta became the bride of John, the son of Pompeius and grandson [actually grandnephew] of the Emperor Anastasius. Shortly after this the Empress died, and Artabanes immediately put away for the second time his unwelcome wife, but Praejecta was lost to him, and he nurished a grudge against the Emperor". ^[54] Bury considers this grudge to have caused Artabanes to join a conspiracy aiming to assassinate Justinian. However this plot failed when the conspirators attempted to recruit family members of Justinian who proved loyal to their kinsman. ^[55]

[edit] Religious policy

Theodora worked against her husband's support of Chalcedonian Christianity in the ongoing struggle for the predominance of each faction.^[26] In spite of Justinian being Orthodox Christian, Theodora founded a Monophysite monastery in Sykae and provided shelter in the palace for Monophysite leaders who faced opposition from the majority Orthodox Christians, like Severus and Anthimus. Anthimus, had been appointed Patriarch of Constantinople under her influence, and after the excommunication order he was hidden in Theodora's quarters for twelve years, until her death. When the Chalcedonian Patriarch Ephraim provoked a violent revolt in Antioch, eight Monophysite bishops were invited to Constantinople and Theodora welcomed them and housed them in the Hormisdas Palace adjoining the Great Palace, which had been Justinian and Theodora's own dwelling before they became emperor and empress.

John of Nikiû notes her connection to Timothy III. "Justinian commanded the Orientals to inscribe the names of the (bishops of the) Council of Chalcedon on the diptychs of the church, although they had sent the patriarch Severus into exile—a custom which had hitherto not existed and which is not mentioned in the Apostolic Canons nor in the Councils of the Fathers who came later: none of the Councils should be mentioned in public worship. Now it was this emperor Justinian alone who established this custom throughout every province of his empire, and had the names of the (bishops of the) Council of Chalcedon inscribed. And Anthimus, patriarch of Constantinople, and Acacius who had been patriarch in the days of the emperor Zeno, and Peter, patriarch of Alexandria, were excommunicated. And he caused their names to be removed from the diptychs, and abolished the Henoticon of the emperor Zeno : he proscribed the name of the patriarch Abba Severus throughout all the province of Antioch and the adjoining districts, enjoining that it should not be mentioned in the diptychs of the church, but cursed; and he caused the inhabitants of Alexandria to thirst after the waters of the doctrine of Dioscoras, who was succeeded by the patriarch Timothy. Now the emperor Justinian had given the patriarchal chair to the Chalcedonians, but as the empress Theodora, his wife, besought him on behalf of Timothy, patriarch of Alexandria, he permitted him on her account. Now she called him 'spiritual father'. And in the days of this father, the emperor Justinian sent numerous forces to Alexandria, and these encompassed the city and wished to shed much blood. But Timothy the patriarch sent many anchorites and ascetics to the emperor to intercede on behalf of the church, and avert a massacre in the city and the shedding of innocent blood, and to get permission (for its people) to abide by the faith of its fathers. And when the emperor heard these petitions, he granted them on the intercession of the empress Theodora, who was near (?) to him, and he sent orders to the army to return to the province of Africa. And the patriarch Timothy continued to reside in his palace, true to the orthodox faith. And again subsequently the emperor sent to Alexandria a chief eunuch, named Calotychius. In that year the Roman empire had reached its 1287th year. [The year given in the Ab urbe condita system. 534 in the Anno Domini system.] And the city continued tranquil for a short period. And the illustrious father Timothy died full of honour." ^[56]

In Egypt, when Timothy III died, Theodora enlisted the help of Dioscoros the Augustal Prefect and Aristomachos the duke of Egypt, to facilitate the enthronement of a disciple of Severus, Theodosius, thereby outmaneuvering her husband who had been plotting for a Catholic successor as patriarch. But Pope Theodosius I of Alexandria, even with the help of imperial troops, could not hold his ground in Alexandria against the Julianists and when he was exiled by Justinian along with 300 Monophysites to the fortress of Delcus in Thrace, Theodora rescued him and brought him to the Hormisdas Palace where he lived under her protection, and after her death in 548, under Justinian's.

Garland notes that Theodora seems to have to held respect for members of the Chalcedonian faction as well.She mentions as evidence the life of Sabbas the Sanctified, written by Cyril of Scythopolis. According to this biographical account, the elderly monk visited the court at Constantinople in 531. The imperial couple received him with prostration before him, "a gesture of veneration for desert ascetic saints". Theodora reportedly took the opportunity to ask him to remember her in his prayers, specifically asking God to allow her to conceive a child. However her monophysitic leanings were already familiar to him. He refused her request and proclaimed than "no issue will come from her womb". Abbas reportedly explained that a child of Theodora would probably adopt the doctrines of Severus and cause more trouble to the church than Anastasius I had. Keeping in mind Anastasius was the last monophysite emperor, this would mean that in Sabbas' eyes Theodora was an enemy and Justinian not fervant enough in his support of the Chalcedonians. The text notes the great grief of Theodora at such a harsh rejection of her request. ^[57]

When Pope Silverius refused Theodora's demand that he remove the anathema of Pope Agapetus I from Anthimus, she sent Belisarius instructions to find a pretext to remove Silverius. When this was accomplished, Virgilius was appointed in his stead.

Conclusively, Theodora's policy on theological matters was separatist. One could argue, as the Chalcedonians did, that Theodora fostered heresy and thus undermined the unity of Christendom. But it would be equally fair to say that Theodora's policy delayed the alienation of the eastern church, and might have postponed it indefinitely but for external events she could not control or foresee.

Another incident, which shows how far Theodora could go to thwart her husband on religious matters, is the case of Nobatae, south of Egypt, whose inhabitants were converted to Monophysite Christianity about 540. Justinian had been determined that they be converted to the Chalcedonian faith and Theodora equally determined that they should be Monophysites. Justinian made arrangements for Chalcedonian missionaries from Thebaid to go with presents to Silko, the king of the Nobatae. But on hearing this, Theodora prepared her own missionaries and wrote to the duke of Thebaid that he should delay her husband's embassy so that the Monophysite missionaries should arrive first; otherwise he would pay for it with his life. The duke was canny enough to thwart the easygoing Justinian instead of the unforgiving Theodora. He saw to it that the Chalcedonian missionaries were delayed. When they eventually reached Silko, they were sent away, for the Nobatae had already adopted the Monophysite creed of Theodosius.

[edit] Death

Theodora died of an unspecified cancer on June 28, 548 before the age of 50, 17 years before Justinian. Her body was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, in Constantinople. Though it has been argued that the sole source for her illness, Victor of Tonnena, may not use the word "cancer" in its modern medical sense, yet cancer seems to be best guess. (There is no documentation to suggest that she died of breast cancer, as some scholars have suggested.) Justinian wept bitterly at her funeral.^[58]

Both Theodora and Justinian are represented in mosaics that exist to this day in the Basilica of San Vitale of Ravenna, Italy, which was completed a year before her death. Garland points that Theodora was depicted in full imperial regalia, her elaborate jewellery attesting to her status. Her chlamys depicts the Biblical Magi bringing their gifts to newborn Jesus. Garland considers the imagery was chosen specifically to emphasize the role of a Theodora as a donator to the Basilica. The Communion chalice which Theodora holds on her hand represents her gifts. ^[37]

Garland points that Theodora was also depicted with Justinian in a work of art described in detail by Procopius. The specific reference is to the ceiling mosaic of the Chalke gate.^[37] "So this entrance, which they call Chalkê, is of the following sort. Four straight walks stand in a quadrangle (tetragonos) rising heaven-high, equal to each other in all respects except that those which face south and north, respectively, are both slightly shorter than the others. At each corner there projects a sort of structure (anastasis) of very carefully worked stones, ascending with the wall from the ground to its very top, having four sides, to be sure, but joined to the wall on one side, not detracting from the beauty of the structure, but actually adding a sort of grace to it by the harmony of the similar proportions. Above them rise eight arches, four of which support the roof which curves over the centre of the whole structure in the form of a suspended dome (sphairoeidês), while the others, two toward the south and two toward the north, rest upon the adjoining walls and lift on high the vaulted (tholos) roof which is balanced between them. And the whole ceiling boasts of its pictures, not having been fixed with wax melted and applied to the surface, but set with tiny cubes of stone beautifully coloured in all hues, which represent human figures and all other kinds of subjects. The subjects of these pictures I will now describe. On either side is war and battle, and many cities are being captured, some in Italy, some in Libya; and the Emperor Justinian is winning victories through his General Belisarius, and the General is returning to the Emperor, with his whole army intact, and he gives him spoils, both kings and kingdoms and all things that are most prized among men. In the centre stand the Emperor and the Empress Theodora, both seeming to rejoice and to celebrate victories over both the King of the Vandals and the King of the Goths, who approach them as prisoners of war to be led into bondage. Around them stands the Roman Senate, all in festal mood. This spirit is expressed by the cubes of the mosaic, which by their colours depict exultation on their very countenances. So they rejoice and smile as they bestow on the Emperor honours equal to those of God, because of the magnitude of his achievements. And the whole interior of the building, as far as the mosaics above, is clothed with handsome marbles, not only the upright surfaces, but the whole of the pavement as well. Some of these marbles are of Spartan stone78 which rivals the emerald, while some simulate the flame of fire; but the most of them are white in colour, yet the white is not plain, but is set off with wavy lines of blue which mingle with the white. So much, then, for this. ^[59]Garland regards that the depiction of Theodora receiving imperial honours on both occasions has a political significance. It was ensuring that her regal status was not seen as inferior to that of Justinian by their subjects. ^[37]

[edit] Known family members

John Malalas records that Comito, her older sister, married General Sittas in 528.^[60] Sittas may thus be the father of Sophia, Theodora's niece.^[61] Whether Anastasia, her younger sister, ever married is unknown.^[62] Theophanes the Confessor names Georgius (George) and Ioannes (John) as relatives of Theodora.^[63]

Modernly, it came to light that her daughter's name was also Theodora, that she was born circa 515 and that she was married by her mother to Flavius Anastasius Paulus Probus Sabinianus Pompeius (ca 500 - aft. 517), Roman Consul in 517.^[64]

Procopius mentions a marital alliance between Theodora and General Belisarius. "For the two entered forthwith into a relationship by marriage and Joannina, the only daughter of Belisarius, was betrothed to Anastasius, grandson of the Empress." ^[65] H. B. Dewing , a 1930s historian and translator, commented "On the subject of Theodora's offspring, both Greek and Latin authors are silent except Procopius, who makes mention of her grandson Anastasius. This notice is corroborated by the Syriac Historia Ecclesiastica of John of Ephesus (German transl., p55): "The blessed John, who was sprung from the family of the Emperor Anastasius and also was a son of the Empress Theodora's daughter." And on p196 of the same work there is mention of "Athanasius, son of the Empress Theodora's daughter." Also, in a German rendering of John of Ephesus, p269, Schoenfelder notes: "Athanasius appears in Bar-Hebraeus as an intermediary between Ascosnagh and Philoponus: he says: 'At that time the Empress Theodora had a grandson, by name Athanasius. . . .'. Also Michael the Syrian., p197: "Athanasius, grandson of the Empress Theodora." ^[66] The daughter of Theodora is never named in sources despite the mentions of at least three of her sons. ^[67] In 1838, Nicolas Alemann suggested that this was a legitimate daughter of Theodora and Justinian. However this would mean the grandchildren of Theodora had a valid claim to the throne. Something no extant source mentions. The daughter was probably illegitimate and the identity of her father remains uncertain. Her husband seems to have been one of the many relatives of Anastasius I. ^[68] Justinian apparently treated the daughter and the daughter's son Athanasius as fully legitimate^[69], although sources disagree whether Justinian was the girl's father. Garland simply points that our sources mention Theodora's daughter and Theodora's grandsons. No source speaks of Justinian's daughter or Justinian's grandsons. On the subject of Theodora's grandsons, Garland notes that they were "prominent members of the court and the establishment". John held the rank of consul. Athanasius was a monk and a leading figure among the monophysites. He seems to have administrated considerable wealth. Anastasius, son-in-law of Belisarius, had probably married into wealth.^[13]

Procopius himself however casts some doubt on both the legality of the latter marriage and its length. He gives the marriage a length of eight months. Then Theodora died and Antonina, wife of Belisarius proceeded to separate the young couple. "The Empress Theodora, pressing to bring about the betrothal of the daughter of Belisarius to her grandson, kept writing constantly and harassing the parents of the girl. But they, seeking to avoid the proposed alliance, tried to put off the marriage until they should be present, and when the Empress summoned them to Byzantium, they pretended that at the moment they were unable to leave Italy. But she was itching to make her grandson master of the wealth of Belisarius, for she realized that the girl would be the heiress, since Belisarius had no other offspring; yet she had not the slightest confidence in the purpose of Antonina, and fearing that after she was gone Antonina would not shew herself faithful to her house, though she had found the Empress so generous at times of the greatest necessity, and would tear up the agreement, she performed an unholy deed. For she caused the young girl to live with the youth without any sanction of law. And they say that secretly she actually forced her to offer herself, much against her will, and thus, after the girl had been compromised, she arranged the wedding for her, to the end that the Emperor might not put a stop to her machinations. Still, when the deed had been accomplished, Anastasius and the girl found themselves held by an ardent love for one another, and a space of no less than eight months was passed in this way. But when Antonina, after the Empress' death, came to Byzantium, she purposely forgot the benefits which the Empress recently had conferred upon her, and paying no attention whatever to the fact that if the girl should marry anyone else, her previous record would be that of a prostitute, she spurned the alliance with the offspring of Theodora and forced the child, entirely against her will, to abandon her beloved. And from this act she won a great reputation for ingratitude among all mankind, yet when her husband arrived, she had no difficulty in persuading him to share with her in this unholy business." ^[70]

Procopius also mentions an illegitimate son of Theodora. "She had accidentally become pregnant by one of her lovers, when she was still on the stage; and perceiving her ill luck too late tried all the usual measures to cause a miscarriage, but despite every artifice was unable to prevail against nature at this advanced stage of development. Finding that nothing else could be done, she abandoned the attempt and was compelled to give birth to the child. The father of the baby, seeing that Theodora was at her wit's end and vexed because motherhood interfered with her usual recreations, and suspecting with good reason that she would do away with the child, took the infant from her, naming him John, and sailed with the baby to Arabia. Later, when he was on the verge of death and John was a lad of fourteen, the father told him the whole story about his mother. So the boy, after he had performed the last rites for his departed father, shortly after came to Constantinople and announced his presence to the Empress's chamberlains. And they, not conceiving the possibility of her acting so inhumanly, reported to the mother that her son John had come. Fearing the story would get to the ears of her husband, Theodora bade her son be brought face to face with her. As soon as he entered, she handed him over to one of her servants who was ordinarily entrusted with such commissions. And in what manner the poor lad was removed from the world, I cannot say, for no one has ever seen him since, not even after the Queen died." ^[71] The "Age of Justinian: The Circumstances of Imperial Power" (1996) by James Allan and Stewart Evans questions the reliability of the account. Theodora had openly recognized an illegitimate daughter and at least three grandsons. The modern historians question why would the existence of an illegitimate son be considered a greater scandal, sufficient to be kept secret and the son to be "done away with". Allan and Evans suggest that John was merely an impostor attempting to enter the ranks of the imperial family. ^[72]

[edit] Lasting Influence

Her influence on Justinian was so strong that after her death, he worked to bring harmony between the Monophysites and the Orthodox Christians in the Empire, and he kept his promise to protect her little community of Monophysite refugees in the Hormisdas Palace. Theodora provided much political support for the ministry of Jacob Baradaeus, and apparently personal friendship as well. Diehl attributes the modern existence of Jacobite Christianity equally to Baradaeus and to Theodora.^[73]

Theodora is considered a great female figure of the Byzantine Empire, and a pioneer of feminism, because of the laws she passed, increasing the rights of women. As a result of Theodora's efforts, the status of women in the Byzantine Empire was elevated far above that of women in the Middle East and the rest of Europe.

[edit] References

[edit] Further reading

• Diehl, Charles. "Theodora, Empress of Byzantium" ((c) 1972 by Frederick Ungar Publishing, Inc., transl. by S.R. Rosenbaum from the original French "Theodora, Imperatice de Byzance"). Popular account based on the author's extensive scholarly research.
• Gibbon, Edward. "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire". (See volume 4, chapter 40 for Gibbon's account of Theodora.)
• Graves, Robert. "Count Belisarius". (A historical novel by the author of "I, Claudius" which features Theodora as a character.)
• Bury, J. B. "The Later Roman Empire". (Volume 2 deals with the reign of Justinian and Theodora)
• Procopius The Secret History at the Internet Medieval Sourcebook
• Procopius The Secret History at LacusCurtius

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Empress Theodora (6th century)

• De Imperatoribus Romanis - Theodora (Wife of Justinian I)
• Gibbons' The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: The Fall of the Roman Empire in the East
• Then again - The Empress Theodora
• Litopia - Empress Theodora
• Her profile in the Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire
• Profile of her older sister Comito in the Prosopography
• Her chapter in "Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527-1204" by Lynda Garland
• Page of "Procopius and the Sixth Century" by Averil Cameron which gives details about her descendants
• Page of "The Age of Justinian" discussing her son John
• Page of "A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene" which details her involvement in the affairs of Praejecta

Royal titles
Preceded by Euphemia	Byzantine Empress consort 527–548	Succeeded by Sophia