Cockatoo

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Cockatoo (disambiguation).
Cockatoos
A pair of Gang-gang Cockatoos in NSW, Australia(male with red head feathers)
A pair of Gang-gang Cockatoos in NSW, Australia
(male with red head feathers)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Psittaciformes
Family: Cacatuidae
genera

Probosciger
Callocephalon
Nymphicus
Calyptorhynchus
Eolophus
Lophochroa
Cacatua

A cockatoo is any of the 21 bird species belonging to the family Cacatuidae. Along with the Psittacidae family (the true parrots) and the Nestoridae family, they make up the order Psittaciformes. The name cockatoo originated from the Malay name for these birds, kaka(k)tua (either from kaka "parrot" + tuwah, or "older sister" from kakak "sister" + tua, "old"). Placement of the cockatoos as a separate family is fairly undisputed, but it is not resolved whether or not other living lineages of parrots (such as the lories and lorikeets) are as distinct as they appear. The family has an Australasian distribution, ranging from the Philippines and the eastern Indonesian islands of Wallacea to New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Australia.

Cockatoos are, on average, larger than true parrots; however, the Cockatiel, the smallest cockatoo, is a small bird, while some of the largest parrots, including the Hyacinth Macaw (the longest parrot) and the flightless Kakapo (the heaviest parrot), are true parrots. Their plumage is generally less colourful than that of the other parrots, being mainly white, grey or black with some colour elsewhere. Like other parrots they have strong bills and feet.

The diet of the cockatoos is composed of seeds, tubers, corms, fruit, flowers and insects. They often feed in large flocks, particularly if they feed on the ground. Cockatoos are monogamous and nest in tree hollows.

Cockatoos are popular birds in aviculture; although, for some species, the largely illegal trade in wild-caught parrots has threatened their survival. Some cockatoo species are threatened by habitat loss and particularly by the loss of suitable hollows for nesting as large, mature trees are cleared; conversely, some species have adapted well to human changes and are considered agricultural pests.

Contents

[edit] Etymology

The Oxford English Dictionary dates the word cockatoo from the 17th century, and records the derivation from the Malay name for these birds, kaka(k)tua (either from kaka "parrot" + tuwah, or "older sister" from kakak "sister" + tua, "old"), via the Dutch kaketoe; the word cock possibly influencing. Seventeenth century variants include cacato, cockatoon and crockadore, and cokato, cocatore and cocatoo from the eighteenth.[1] The derivation has also been used for the family and generic names Cacatuidae and Cacatua respectively.


[edit] Systematics and evolution

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Cacatua (Cacatua) alba

 

Cacatua (Cacatua) moluccensis

 

Cacatua (Cacatua) ophthalmica

 

Cacatua (Cacatua) sulphurea sulphurea


Cacatua (Cacatua) sulphurea citroncristata


 

Cacatua (Cacatua) galerita


 
 

Cacatua (Licmetis) sanguinea


Cacatua (Licmetis) pastinator


Cacatua (Licmetis) tenuirostris


Cacatua (Licmetis) ducorpsii


Cacatua (Licmetis) goffiniana


 

Cacatua (Licmetis) haematuropygia



 

Lophocroa leadbeateri


 

Eolophus roseicapilla


 

Callocephalon fimbriatum


Probosciger aterrimus


 
 

Calyptorhynchus (Zanda) baudinii

 

Calyptorhynchus (Zanda) latirostris

 

Calyptorhynchus (Zanda) funereus


 
 

Calyptorhynchus (Calyptorhynchus) banksii

 

Calyptorhynchus (Calyptorhynchus) lathami



 

Nymphicus hollandicus


 

Psittacidae

Phylogeny of the family Cacatuidae based on the available literature

The family Cacatuidae forms a well-defined clade.[2][3][4][5][6] The relationships between Cockatoo species are not yet fully understood, and the available data does not support any subdivision of the family in subfamilies.[7] The genera Eolophus, Lophochroa and Cacatua form a well-defined clade.[8][2][3][6][9][10] All species in this clade are hypomelanistic and do not show sexual dimorphism. The topology of the remaining genera relative to each other varies between studies, often with poor statistical support for the various topologies, and is effectively unresolved. These dark species have ample melanin in their plumage combined with some red, yellow or orange on wing, tail and face, barred feathers on wing, tail and/or body as well as contrasting ear area spotting in females, while males have the corresponding feathers unbarred and may lack the ear spotting. Most species in this group are sexually dichromatic.

The topology in the Eolophus/Lophochroa/Cacatua clade is well established, with the genus Eolophus (Galah) basal to the other genera while the genera Lophochroa and Cacatua are sister clades.[8][10] The genera Calyptorhynchus and Cacatua are further subdivided into two subgenera each.

The fossil record of cockatoos is even more limited than that of parrots in general, with only one truly ancient cockatoo fossil known: A species of Cacatua, most probably subgenus Licmetis, was found in Early Miocene (16-23 million years ago) deposits of Riversleigh, Australia.[11] In Melanesia, subfossil bones of Cacatua species which apparently did not survive early human settlement were found on New Caledonia and New Ireland.[12][13] The bearing of these fossils on cockatoo evolution and phylogeny is fairly limited, except that the Riversleigh fossil allows some tentative dating of the divergence of subfamilies.

[edit] Family Cacatuidae

Yellow-tailed Black Cockatoo
Major Mitchell's Cockatoo in Queensland, Australia.
A Sulphur-crested Cockatoo displaying crest feathers

[edit] Morphology

The Long-billed Corella has an elongated bill used for digging for food in the ground. Note also the bluish periophthalmic ring

The cockatoos are generally large to medium sized parrots, with one species, the Cockatiel, being quite smaller than the other species.[15] Cockatoos share many features with other parrots including the characteristic curved beak shape and a zygodactyl foot, with two forward toes and two backwards toes.[16] They differ, however in a number of characteristics, including the often spectacular movable headcrest,[17] the presence of a gall bladder and some other anatomical details, and their lack of the Dyck texture feather composition which causes the bright blues and greens seen in true parrots.

Like other parrots, cockatoos have short, strong claws, and walk with a waddle, often using their strong bill as a third limb when climbing through branches. They generally have long broad wings used in rapid flight, with speeds up to 70 km/h being recorded for galahs.[18] The Calyptorhynchus, and larger White Cockatoos; such as, the Sulphur-crested Cockatoo and Major Mitchell's Cockatoo, have shorter rounder wings and a more leisurely flight.[18]

Cockatoos have large bills which are kept sharp by rasping the two mandibles together when resting. The bills are complemented by large muscular tongues which help manipulate seeds inside the bills so that they can be de-husked before eating.[15] During the de-husking the lower mandible applies the pressure, the tongue holds the seed in place and the upper mandible acts as an anvil.

Red-tailed Black Cockatoos (male on left and female on right)

The plumage of the cockatoos is less brightly coloured than that of the other parrots, with species generally being either black, grey or white. Many species have smaller areas of colour on their plumage, often yellow, pink and red, and usually on the crest or tail.[19] The Galah and Major Mitchell's Cockatoo are more broadly coloured in pink tones.[20] Several species have a brightly coloured bare area around the eye and face known as a periophthalmic ring; the large red patch of bare skin of the Palm Cockatoo is the most extensive, and covers some of the face, while it is more restricted in some other species of white cockatoo, notably the corellas and Blue-eyed Cockatoo.[20] The plumage of males and females is similar in most species, the most consistent difference being the slightly larger male bill size (although this is quite marked in the Palm Cockatoo). The plumage of the female Cockatiel is duller than the male, but the most marked sexual dimorphism occurs in the Gang-gang Cockatoo and the two species of black cockatoos in the subgenus Calyptorhynchus, namely the Red-tailed and Glossy Black Cockatoos.[21] The iris colour differs in a few species, being pink or red in the female Galah and Major Mitchell's Cockatoo, and red-brown in some other female White cockatoo species. The males all have dark brown irises.[21]

[edit] Voice

The vocalisations of cockatoos are loud and harsh.[15] They serve a number of functions, including allowing individuals to recognise one another, warning others of predators, indicating individual moods, maintaining the cohesion of a flock and as warnings when defending nests. The use of calls and number of specific calls varies by species; the Short-billed Black Cockatoo has as many as 15 different calls, whereas others, such as Major Mitchell's Cockatoo, have fewer. Some, like the Gang-gang Cockatoo, are comparatively quiet, but do have softer growling calls when feeding. In addition to vocalisations, the Palm Cockatoos communicate over large distances by drumming on a dead branch with a stick.[22] Cockatoo species also make a characteristic hissing sound when threatened.[23]

[edit] Distribution and habitat

The Tanimbar Corella is restricted to the islands of Tanimbar in Indonesia; however a few feral escapees are found in Singapore.

Cockatoos have a much more restricted range than the true parrots, occurring naturally only in Australasia.[15] Eleven of the 21 species exist in the wild only in Australia, while seven species occur in the islands of Indonesia, New Guinea, the Philippines and the Solomon Islands. Interestingly, no cockatoo species are found in Borneo or many Pacific Islands,[24] although fossil remains have been recorded from New Caledonia.[12]

Three species occur in both New Guinea and Australia. Some species have widespread distributions, for example the Galah occurs over most of Australia, whereas other species have tiny distributions, confined to a small part of the continent, such as the Long-billed Black Cockatoo of Western Australia, or to a small island group, such as the Tanimbar Corella, which is restricted to the Tanimbar Islands of Indonesia. Some cockatoos have been introduced accidentally to areas outside their natural range such as New Zealand, Singapore, Hong Kong and Palau,[25] while two Australian corella species have been introduced to parts of the continent where they are not native.

Cockatoos occupy a wide range of habitats. The most widespread species are open country specialists that feed on grass seeds.[15] Species may also occupy woodlands, rainforests, shrublands and even alpine forests. Several species have adapted well to human modified habitats, and are found in agricultural areas and even busy cities.[26]

[edit] Behaviour

Cockatoos are diurnal, requiring daylight to find their food.[15] They are not early risers, instead waiting until the sun has warmed their roosting sites before feeding. The 21 species are generally highly social and will roost, forage and travel together, often in large flocks. All species require roosting sites that are sometimes located near drinking sites, but many species may travel great distances between the roosting sites and feeding sites.[27]

Cockatoos have several characteristic methods of bathing; they may hang upside down or fly about in the rain, or flutter in wet leaves in the canopy.[23]

[edit] Diet and feeding

Galahs feed on the ground in flocks that range from 10 to 1000 birds

Cockatoos are versatile feeders and consume a range of mainly vegetable food items.[15] Seeds form a large part of the diet of all species; these are opened with their large and powerful bills. Cockatoos may feed either individually or in flocks that range in size from small to quite immense. The Galahs, corellas and some of the black cockatoos feed primarily on the ground, others feed mostly in trees. The ground feeding species tend to forage in flocks, which form tight, squabbling groups where seeds are concentrated, and dispersed lines where food is more sparsely distributed.

While some cockatoos are generalists taking a wide range of foods, others are specialists. The Glossy Black Cockatoo specialises in the cones of Allocasuarina, often a single species, which it holds in its foot and shreds with its powerful bill before removing the seeds with its tongue.[28] Some species take large numbers of insects, particularly when breeding; in fact the bulk of the Yellow-tailed Black Cockatoo's diet is made up of insects. The large bill is used in order to extract grubs and larvae from rotting wood. The amount of time cockatoos have to spend foraging varies with the season. During times of plenty, they may only need to feed for a few hours in the day, in the morning and evening, and spend the rest of the day loafing, but during the winter most of the day may be spent foraging. During hard times the cockatoos also display versatility in their diet, travelling widely in order to find food, feeding on more green plant material and in some species using their large bills to dig up corms.

[edit] Breeding

Cockatoos are monogamous breeders, with pair bonds that can last many years. They may also display site fidelity, returning to the same nesting sites in consecutive years.[22] Courtship is generally simple, particularly for established pairs, with the black cockatoos alone engaging in courtship feeding. Established pairs do engage in allopreening, but all forms of courtship drop off after incubation begins, possibly due to the strength of the pair-bond.[29]

Like most parrots the cockatoos are cavity nesters, nesting in holes in trees.[30] In many places these holes are scarce and the source of competition, both with other members of the same species and with other species and types of animal.[31] This competition is particularly intense amongst larger species.

The nesting hollows are lined with sticks, wood chips and branches with leaves. The eggs of cockatoos are oval and initially white, although they become discoloured over the course of incubation. They range in size from 55*40 mm in the Palm Cockatoo to 26*18 mm in the Cockatiel. Clutch size varies amongst the family, with the Palm Cockatoo and some other larger cockatoos laying only a single egg, and the smaller species laying anywhere between two to eight eggs. Amongst the cockatoos incubation and brooding responsibilities may either be undertaken by the female alone in the case of the black cockatoos or shared amongst the sexes as happens in the other species. In the case of the black cockatoos the female is provisioned by the male several times a day.

[edit] Relationship with humans

[edit] Aviculture

Umbrella Cockatoos are popular as pets, but they can be noisy and demanding.

Cockatoos are very popular as pets, not only for their appearance and their ability to mimic human speech but also for their intelligence and engaging personalities.[15] Well-socialised cockatoos are often affectionate not only to their owner but to strangers as well. In spite of their attractiveness as pets there are drawbacks; they are prone to psychological disorders and are potentially destructive, with the larger cockatoos in particular prone to destructive behaviour. Cockatoos may show aggression during the breeding season; cockatoos are capable of very strong and painful bites. They also require attention, although experts warn against "spoiling" young birds with too much attention as it may make the bird dependent on the owner, leading to problems later in life. Another drawback as a pet is the fact that most cockatoo species are very loud birds, though they naturally only vocalize for short periods of time twice a day. They can be expensive pets, with a cost which typically ranges from $500-$2000 for the more commonly available species. In addition to the actual cost, cockatoos require a very large cage for their size. Cockatoos also require an out of cage gym or perch and a steady supply of toys, branches, cardboard boxes, or other chewable items, which prevents future self destructive behaviour such as feather-plucking and the development of stereotypic behaviour patterns. Cockatoos are capable of living up to 30-70 years depending upon species (around 20 years for the smaller Cockatiels) and as such they require a long term commitment from their owners. Their longevity is also considered a positive trait as it reduces instances of the loss of a pet.[15]

A pet male Cockatiel

Cockatoos are popular for use in trained bird shows, and they can also be trained as pets. Cockatoos are generally less food motivated than other birds; some birds may be more motivated by a reward of petting or praise than of food. Cockatoos can often be trained to accept a parrot harness, enabling their owners to take them outdoors. Cockatoos have been used in animal-assisted therapy, generally in nursing homes.

In general, the smaller cockatoo species such as Galahs and Goffin's Cockatoos are considered to be much easier to keep as pets than large cockatoos such as Moluccans. In Australia, where Galahs are extremely abundant and inexpensive, they are often considered to be good first birds. The smallest species of cockatoo, the Cockatiel is a non-destructive and less demanding alternative making them extremely popular as pets, and among the species most often recommended to new bird owners.

[edit] Popular culture

The Palm Cockatoo has a very strong bill and a characteristic face with red cheeks

Cockatoos often have pronounced responses to musical sounds, and numerous videos exist showing the birds "dancing" to popular music. Research conducted in 2008 with an Eleonora Cockatoo named Snowball had indicated that this particular individual is indeed capable of beat induction — perceiving human-created music and synchronizing his body movements to the beat.[32]

Cockatoos were painted by Hungarian artist Jakob Bogdani (1660-1724), who resided in Amsterdam from 1683 and then England.[33]

The Palm Cockatoo, which has a unique beak and face colouration, is used as a symbol by the World Parrot Trust.

In Australian slang or vernacular speech, a person who is deputed to keep a look-out while colleagues undertake clandestine or illegal activities, particularly gambling, may be referred to as a "cockatoo".[15] Proprietors of small agricultural undertakings are frequently jocularly or slightly disparagingly referred to as "cocky farmers".[34]

They have been used frequently in advertising; for example, a cockatoo appeared recently in a 'cheeky' advertising campaign for Cockatoo Ridge Wineries. The advertisement featured former Miss Australia Erin McNaught with a Sulphur-crested Cockatoo perched on her shoulder, beside the sexually implicit slogan "She loves a cockatoo". The advertisement received mixed reactions from the public. It was later pulled from circulation in favour of an alternative picture beside the slogan ' Who's a cheeky girl, then? ' - a common expression taught to domesticated cockatoos.

[edit] Pests

Cockatoos can be serious agricultural pests.[35] They are sometimes controlled by shooting, poisoning or capture followed by gassing. Non-lethal damage mitigation methods used include scaring, habitat manipulation and the provision of decoy food dumps or sacrifice crops to distract them from the main crop. They can be a nuisance in urban areas due to destruction of property. They maintain their bills in the wild by chewing on wood; in suburbia, they may chew outdoor furniture, door and window frames,[26] and soft decorative timbers such as Western Red Cedar are readily demolished.[36] Birds may also target external wiring and fixtures such as solar water heaters,[26] television antennae and satellite dishes.[36] A business in central Melbourne suffered as Sulphur-crested Cockatoos repeatedly stripped the silicone sealant from the plate glass windows.[37] Galahs and Red-tailed Black Cockatoos have stripped electrical cabling in rural areas, and tarpaulin is targeted elsewhere.[37] Several cockatoo species, especially Australian ones, are regarded as pests in some places, at some times or in particular circumstances.

  • In 1995 the Government of the state of Victoria published a report on problems caused by Long-billed Corellas, Sulphur-crested Cockatoos and Galahs, three species which, along with the Little Corella, have large and growing populations, having benefited from anthropogenic changes to the landscape. Subsequent to the findings and publication of the report, these three species were declared unprotected by a Governor in Council Order, under certain conditions, and are able to be destroyed where serious damage is being caused by them to trees, vineyards, orchards, recreational reserves and commercial crops.[44] Damage covered by the report included not only that to cereal crops, fruit and nut orchards and some kinds of vegetable crops, but also to houses and communications equipment.[45]
  • The Little Corella is a declared pest of agriculture in Western Australia, where it is an aviculturally introduced species. The birds damage sorghum, maize, sunflower, chickpeas and other crops. They also defoliate amenity trees in parks and gardens, dig for edible roots and corms on sports grounds and race tracks, as well as chewing wiring and household fittings.[46] In South Australia, where flocks can number several thousand birds and the species is listed as unprotected, they are accused of defoliating Red Gums and other native or ornamental trees used for roosting, damaging tarpaulins on grain bunkers, wiring and flashing on buildings, taking grain from newly seeded paddocks, and creating a noise nuisance.[47]
  • Butler's Corella (Cacatua pastinator butleri), a subspecies of the Western Corella, is a declared pest of agriculture in Western Australia, where is causes similar damage to that of the Little Corella.[48]
  • Muir's Corella, the nominate subspecies of the Western Corella, is also a declared pest of agriculture in Western Australia, as well as being nationally Vulnerable and listed under state legislation as being ‘rare or likely to become extinct’.[49]

[edit] Status and conservation

A Sulphur-crested Cockatoo on a balcony rail in central Sydney

Human activities have had positive effects on some species of cockatoo and negative effects on others. According to the IUCN and BirdLife International seven species of cockatoo are considered to be vulnerable or worse, and a further species is considered to be near threatened.[51] Of these two, the Philippine Cockatoo and the Yellow-crested Cockatoo, are considered to be critically endangered.[52]

The principal threats to cockatoos are habitat loss and the wildlife trade. All cockatoos are dependent on trees for nesting and are vulnerable to their loss, in addition many species have specialised habitat requirements or live on small islands and have naturally small ranges already, making them vulnerable to the loss of these habitats.[53] Cockatoos are popular as pets, and the capture and trade has threatened some species. For example between 1983 and 1990, 66,654 Moluccan Cockatoos were exported from Indonesia, a figure that does not include the number of birds caught for the domestic trade or that were exported illegally.[54] The capture of many species has subsequently been banned, but the trade continues illegally.

All species of cockatoo are protected by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (also known as CITES), which makes the import, export and trade in all wild-caught parrots and cockatoos illegal.

Five cockatoo species - the Tanimbar Corella (Cacatua goffiniana), Red-vented Cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia), Moluccan Cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis), Yellow-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea), and Palm Cockatoo(Probosciger aterrimus) are protected on the CITES appendix 1 list of endangered species.[55] All other cockatoo species bar the Cockatiel are protected on the CITES Appendix 2 list of vulnerable species.[55]

[edit] References

  1. ^ J. Simpson, E. Weiner (eds), ed (1989). "cockatoo". Oxford English Dictionary (2nd edition ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-861186-2. 
  2. ^ a b Wright, T.F.; Schirtzinger E. E., Matsumoto T., Eberhard J. R., Graves G. R., Sanchez J. J., Capelli S., Muller H., Scharpegge J., Chambers G. K. & Fleischer R. C. (2008). "A Multilocus Molecular Phylogeny of the Parrots (Psittaciformes): Support for a Gondwanan Origin during the Cretaceous". Mol Biol Evol 25 (10): 2141-2156. doi:10.1093/molbev/msn160 . 
  3. ^ a b de Kloet, RS; de Kloet SR (2005). "The evolution of the spindlin gene in birds: Sequence analysis of an intron of the spindlin W and Z gene reveals four major divisions of the Psittaciformes". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 36: 706-721. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2005.03.013. 
  4. ^ Tokita, M; Kiyoshi T and Armstrong KN (2007). "Evolution of craniofacial novelty in parrots through developmental modularity and heterochrony". Evolution & Development 9: 590-601. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118546207/abstract. 
  5. ^ Astuti, Dwi; Noriko Azuma, Hitoshi Suzuki, and Seigo Higashi. (2006). "Phylogenetic relationships within parrots (Psittacidae) inferred from mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene sequences.". Zoological Science 23: 191-198. 
  6. ^ a b Christidis, L., L.; R. Schodde, D. D. Shaw, and S. F. Maynes. (1991). "Christidis, L., R. Schodde, D. D. Shaw, and S. F. Maynes. 1991. Relationships among the Australo-Papuan parrots, lorikeets, and cockatoos (Aves, Psittaciformes) - protein evidence.". Condor 93: 302-317. 
  7. ^ Christidis L, Boles WE (2008). Systematics and Taxonomy of Australian Birds. Canberra: CSIRO Publishing. pp. 200. ISBN 9780643065116. 
  8. ^ a b Brown DM, Toft CA. (1999): Molecular systematics and biogeography of the cockatoos (Psittaciformes: Cacatuidae). Auk 116(1): 141-157.
  9. ^ Adams, M., P. R. Bayerstck, D. A. Saunders, R. Schodde, AND G. T. Smith. 1984. Biochemical systematics of the Australian cockatoos (Psittaciformes: Cacatuinae). Australian Journal of Zoology 32:363-377
  10. ^ a b Astuti, Dwi (2004): A phylogeny of cockatoos (Aves: Psittaciformes) inferred from DNA sequences of the seventh intron of nuclear β-fibrinogen gene. Doctoral work, Graduate School of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University, Japan.[1]
  11. ^ Boles WE (1993): A new cockatoo (Psittaciformes: Cacatuidae) from the Tertiary of Riversleigh, northwestern Queensland, and an evaluation of rostral characters in the systematics of parrots. Ibis 135: 8-18.
  12. ^ a b Steadman, David (2006). Extinction and Biogeography in Tropical Pacific Birds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 348. ISBN 978-0-226-77142-7. 
  13. ^ Steadman, David; J. Peter White & Jim Allen (1999). "Prehistoric birds from New Ireland, Papua New Guinea: Extinctions on a large Melanesian island" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 96 (5): 2563-2568. 
  14. ^ Roselaar, C.S.; J.P. Michels (2004). "Systematic notes on Asian birds. 48. Nomenclatural chaos untangled, resulting in the naming of the formally undescribed Cacatua species from the Tanimbar Islands, Indonesia (Psittaciformes: Cacatuidae)". Zoologische Verhandelingen 350: 183-196. http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/43942. 
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Rowley, Ian (1997), "Family Cacatuidae (Cockatoos)", in Josep, del Hoyo; Andrew, Elliott; Jordi, Sargatal, Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 4, Sandgrouse to Cuckoos, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, pp. 246-269, ISBN 84-873334-22-9 
  16. ^ Cameron, p. 69
  17. ^ Cameron, p. 57
  18. ^ a b Cameron, p. 67
  19. ^ Cameron, p. 58
  20. ^ a b Cameron, p. 59
  21. ^ a b Cameron, p. 61
  22. ^ a b Murphy, Stephen; Sarah Legge & Robert Heinsohn (2003). "The breeding biology of palm cockatoos (Probosciger aterrimus): a case of a slow life history". Journal of Zoology 261 (4): 327 - 339. doi:10.1017/S0952836903004175. 
  23. ^ a b Forshaw, Joseph M.; Cooper, William T. (1978). Parrots of the World (2nd ed.). Melbourne, Australia: Landsdowne Editions. pp. 110. ISBN 0-7018-0690-7. 
  24. ^ Cameron, p. 86
  25. ^ Styche, Andrew (2000). "Distribution and Behavioural Ecology of the Sulphur-Crested Cockatoo (Cacatua Galerita L.) in New Zealand". Doctoral Thesis. Victoria University of Wellington. http://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/handle/10063/669?show=full. 
  26. ^ a b c Temby, Ian (1999), "Urban wildlife issues in Australia", in Williams, Shaw (PDF), Proceedings Of The 4th International Symposium On Urban Wildlife Conservation, Tucson, Arizona 
  27. ^ Lindenmayer, DB; MP Pope, RB Cunningham, CF Donnelly & HA Nix (1996). "Roosting of the Sulphur-Crested Cockatoo Cacatua galerita". Emu 96 (3): 209 - 212. doi:10.1071/MU9960209 . 
  28. ^ Crowley, Gabriel M.; Stephen Garnett (2001). "Food Value and tree selection by Glossy Black-Cockatoos Calyptorhynchus lathami". Austral Ecology 26 (1): 116–126. doi:10.1046/j.1442-9993.2001.01093.x. 
  29. ^ Saunders, D. A. (1974). "The function of displays in the breeding of the White-tailed Black Cockatoo". Emu 74 (1): 43 - 46. doi:10.1071/MU974043 . 
  30. ^ Cameron, Matt (2006). "Nesting habitat of the glossy black-cockatoo in central New South Wales". Biological Conservation 127 (4): 402-410. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.08.019 . 
  31. ^ Heinsohn, Robert; Stephen Murphy and Sarah Legge. "Overlap and competition for nest holes among eclectus parrots, palm cockatoos and sulphur-crested cockatoos". Australian Journal of Zoology 51 (1): 81 - 94. doi:10.1071/ZO02003 . 
  32. ^ Patel, Aniruddh D.; Iversen, John R.; Bregman, Micah R.; Schulz, Irena; Schulz, Charles (2008-08), "Investigating the human-specificity of synchronization to music", Proceedings of the 10th Intl. Conf. on Music Perception and Cognition (Adelaide: Causal Productions), http://vesicle.nsi.edu/users/patel/Patel_Iversen_Bregman_Schulz_Schulz_ICMPC10_in_press.pdf, retrieved on 2008-11-14 
  33. ^ Elphick, Jonathan (2004). Birds:The Art of Ornithology. London: Natural History Museum. pp. 24. ISBN 1-902686-66-0. 
  34. ^ [http://www.abc.net.au/newsradio/txt/s1434326.htm ABC NewsRadio: wordwatch, Cockatoo
  35. ^ Bomford, Mary; Ron Sinclair (2002). "Australian research on bird pests: impact, management and future directions". Emu 102 (1): 29-45. doi:10.1071/MU01028. 
  36. ^ a b Cameron, p. 155
  37. ^ a b Cameron, p. 156
  38. ^ Ahmet, Mike. (1998). The damage caused by Red-tailed Black-Cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus banksii) on peanut and other crops within the farming district of Lakeland Downs, Cape York Peninsula. Report to Queensland Department of Environment.[2]
  39. ^ Garnett, Stephen. (1998). Red-tailed Black-Cockatoo damage and damage mitigation at Lakeland Downs, Cape York Peninsula. Eclectus 5: 26-34.
  40. ^ House, Susan; & Lees, Nadya. (2005). Mammal browsing in hardwood plantations. Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries Note[3]
  41. ^ a b Saunders, Denis. (2005). “Conserving Carnaby’s Black-Cockatoo: historical background on changing status”. Pp.9-18 in: Gole, Cheryl. (Ed.). (2005). Conserving Carnaby's black-cockatoo - future directions: proceedings from a conservation symposium, Perth, Western Australia, 2 July 2003. Birds Australia WA Inc: Perth. ISBN 0-9751429-0-9[4]
  42. ^ Australian Government Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts: Species Profile and Threats Database: Calyptorhynchus latirostris.[5]
  43. ^ Cameron, p. 22
  44. ^ Temby, Ian. (2003). Victorian cockatoos. Victorian Department of Primary Industries Information Note.[6]
  45. ^ Environment and Natural Resources Committee (Parliament of Victoria). (1995). Problems in Victoria caused by Long-billed Corellas, Sulphur-crested Cockatoos and Galahs. Victorian Government Printer.
  46. ^ Western Australian Department of Environment and Conservation, Fauna Note No.20: Little Corella.[7]
  47. ^ South Australian Department for Environment and Heritage. Little Corella (Cacatua sanguinea): Resource document.[8]
  48. ^ Western Australian Department of Environment and Conservation. (2007). Butler's Corella. Fauna Note No.19.[9]
  49. ^ Anon. (2007). Muir’s Corella. (Fauna Note No.4). Department of Environment and Conservation, Western Australia.[10]
  50. ^ Cameron, p. 160
  51. ^ Birdlife International (2008). "Data Zone: Search Species". http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMFindResults.asp&hdnAction=SEARCH&hdnPageMode=0&cboFamily=67&txtGenus=&txtSpecies=&txtCommonName=&cboRegion=-2&cboCountry=-2. Retrieved on 2008-12-13. 
  52. ^ Cameron, p. 178
  53. ^ Maron, Martine (2005). "Agricultural change and paddock tree loss: Implications for an endangered subspecies of Red-tailed Black-Cockatoo". Ecological Management & Restoration 6 (3): 206 - 211. doi:10.1111/j.1442-8903.2005.00238.x. 
  54. ^ Kinnaird, Margaret F; Timothy G. O'Brien, Frank R. Lambert and David Purmias (2003). "Density and distribution of the endemic Seram cockatoo Cacatua moluccensis in relation to land use patterns". Biological Conservation 109 (2): 227-235. doi:doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00150-7 . 
  55. ^ a b Cameron, p. 169

[edit] Cited text

[edit] External links

Sister project Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Cacatuidae
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockatoo"
Personal tools