In the footsteps of King Harold
Harold
II of England – who is best known for having lost the Battle of Hastings,
and the crown, to William of Normandy in 1066 – is one of Britain's
unsung heroes. Only 19 days before his untimely death at Hastings, Harold
had defeated a massive Viking army – a victory that ended for all
time incursions into England by Norsemen. And he fought extremely bravely
and almost won against William.
This chronology of Harold's life tracks his progress through the minefields of pre-Conquest politics. Throughout you will find links that will take you to more information about locations that were particularly significant to the last Saxon king.
c. 1020
Harold Godwinsson – the second son of Godwin, earl of Wessex, and his wife Gytha – is born at Bosham, West Sussex on the south coast of England. His father has risen from the lowest ranks of the Saxon aristocracy to become the most powerful man in England – perhaps even more than the king. His mother is a cousin of King Cnut (Canute), the Danish king who succeeded to the English crown on the death of Edmund II Ironside in 1016.
1035
Cnut dies and is succeeded by Harold I Harefoot (so called because of his fleetness of foot) and his half-brother Hardicnut (Hardicanute); two years later, Harold I is recognised as sole king and crowned at Oxford.
1040
18 June: Harold I Harefoot having died at the age of 24, Hardicnut is crowned king of England at Canterbury. He has his half-brother's body disinterred, beheaded and flung into a marsh.
1042
8 June: The childless Hardicnut – who, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 'never did anything worthy of a king while he reigned' – dies suddenly at a wedding feast at Lambeth.
1043
3 April: On Easter Day, Edward the Confessor – elder half-brother of Hardicnut – is crowned king of England, largely thanks to the support of Godwin, Harold's father.
Edward creates a permanent base for the English monarchy on the banks of the Thames at Westminster, then outside London.
1045
At about this time, Harold takes Ealdgyth Swanneshals (Edith Swan-neck) as his mistress. This is a love match, but they never marry.
Earl Godwin arranges the marriage of Edward to his daughter, another Ealdgyth. It may be that the marriage remains unconsummated; in any event, Ealdgyth does not produce a royal heir.
Godwin obtains the earldom of East Anglia for Harold and another (in the Midlands) for his eldest son Swein.
1046
Swein, with Prince Gruffydd ap Llywelyn of Gwynedd, invades south Wales and kidnaps the abbess of Leominster, keeping her as a 'sex slave'.
1047
Edward exiles Swein to Denmark. Harold and his cousin Beorn are awarded the lands forfeited by Swein.
1049
Swein behaves so badly that he is ordered to leave Denmark. He returns to England, begging Edward for forgiveness. Godwin is in favour of this; Harold, Beorn and the other brothers object. Edward decrees that Swein must leave from Bosham within three days or be executed.
Swein rides the 70 miles along the coast to Pevensey in East Sussex where the rest of his family waits, to make a final plea for help to get him reinstated. Somehow he gets Beorn to agree to speak on his behalf to the king. Then Swein, Beorn and three attendants set off again for Bosham. When they arrive, Swein has Beorn tied up and bundled on to his boat. He then kills his cousin in cold blood and dumps him into an unmarked grave.
The psychopathic Swein has gone too far. He is abandoned by the royal fleet (under Godwin's control) and even his own ships. He is forced to flee to Flanders.
1050
The Norman Robert of Jumièges – an enemy of Godwin and his family – is made archbishop of Canterbury.
1051
Despite the universal condemnation of his eldest son, Godwin successfully uses his influence to pressure Edward into allowing Swein back into England. His return creates rifts within his family and resentment among other nobles who are now compelled to return land to him.
November: Archbishop Robert accuses Godwin of the murder of King Edward's brother Alfred (which occurred in 1037). Then Edward demands that Godwin makes an example of Dover, where a pub brawl – staged by the king's brother-in-law Eustace – had turned into a full-scale riot. Godwin refuses, and he and his family flee into exile.
Godwin, his wife Gytha and his sons Swein, Tostig and Gyrth go to Bruges in Flanders; sons Harold and Leofwine seek refuge in Ireland. Queen Ealdgyth – Godwin's daughter – is sent to a nunnery at Wherwell in Hampshire, where the king's sister is abbess.
Harold raises a fleet and, joining his father, ravages the Somerset coast. Swein goes on pilgrimage to Jerusalem.
At about this time, Duke William of Normandy visits Edward, who is his first cousin once removed. The latter, grateful for the generous treatment shown him during his 25-year exile in Normandy, promises to make William his heir.
1052
14/15 September: Earl Godwin and his sons sail up the Thames to London with a large fleet and force Edward to reinstate them. Harold is appointed as the most senior of Edward's advisers.
The archbishop of Canterbury, Robert of Jumièges, flees to Normandy. He takes with him Harold's youngest brother and a nephew as hostages, handing them over to William.
29 September: Swein dies in Constantinople on his return from his pilgrimage. Harold is now clearly Godwin's heir.
1053
15 April: While spending Easter with the king at Winchester, Godwin dies. He may have suffered a stroke. Alternatively, it is said that, while having dinner with the king, Godwin swears, 'May this morsel of bread choke me if even in thought I have ever been false to you,' and then chokes to death on a bit of bread.
Harold succeeds his father as earl of Wessex. So that he can devote all his energies to Church matters and hunting, Edward passes virtually all the administration of the kingdom to Harold.
1055
Tostig is made earl of Northumbria.
Harold is responsible for the undeserved banishment of Earl Aelfgar, son of Earl Leofric of Mercia and his wife Godiva. Aelfgar goes to Ireland and raises an army. He sails with it to Wales to join forces with Prince Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, now ruler of all Wales.
24 October: Prince Gruffydd and the exiled Aelfgar sack Hereford and set fire to the town. Harold, commanding the English army in Wales, is sent to avenge this incident but only manages to rebuild the town and make peace with Aelfgar, who is reinstated to his earldom.
1056
As a result of Harold's mediation with Earl Leofric of Mercia and Earl Ealdred of Worcester, Gruffydd accepts Edward the Confessor as his overlord.
Harold is sent by King Edward to Hungary to bring back Edward 'the Exile' – son of King Edmund II Ironside and a possible successor to Edward.
1057
August: Edward 'the Exile' returns to England from Hungary and dies soon after. Some historians have implicated Harold in his death. The dead man leaves behind his 10-year-old son Edgar Atheling (Atheling=heir to the throne), yet another of Edward the Confessor's heirs.
1058
Harold adds the earldom of Hereford to his possessions.
Harold makes a pilgrimage to Rome.
1060
3 May: Waltham Abbey, built by Harold, is consecrated.
1062
Christmas: Harold makes a surprise attack on Rhuddlan in north Wales, headquarters of Prince Gruffydd. The Welsh leader escapes.
1063
May: Harold (by sea) and Tostig (by land) invade Wales and conquer Gwynedd.
5 August: Gruffydd, in flight from the English earls, is murdered by his own men; his head is sent to Harold. Wales is divided among the native princes.
1064
Harold is in Normandy. Why is disputed. The official version (promulgated by the Normans after 1066) is that he is on an embassy from King Edward, to confirm the monarch's promise of the English throne to Duke William. According to the Bayeux Tapestry, Harold landed up in France due to a shipwreck on his way home from Wales. A much more likely reason is that he has come there to rescue his brother and nephew, taken hostage by Robert of Jumièges 12 years earlier.
Harold is held prisoner by a local baron. He is rescued by William and becomes – half guest, half prisoner – part of the duke's entourage at ducal strongholds such as the one at Caen.
Harold joins William in a campaign against Brittany. After rescuing two Norman knights from quicksand, Harold is knighted by the duke. Then William takes Harold to Bayeux Cathedral, where he demands that the earl take a solemn oath over sacred relics, promising to support his claim to the English crown. Harold complies.
William arranges the engagement between one of his young daughters and Harold.
On his return to England and despite the engagement, Harold marries Ealdgyth, Prince Gruffydd's widow and the daughter of Aelfgar of Mercia. By this time, his mistress Ealdgyth Swan-neck has borne him six children. Harold and his new wife eventually have one son (also named Harold).
1065
3 October: As a result of Tostig's inept and tyrannical rule, Northumbrian rebels attack his stronghold at York, then march south as far as Oxford, demanding a new governor. Commanded by Edward to negotiate, Harold reluctantly agrees to exile Tostig, who is replaced by Earl Morcar of Mercia, Godiva's grandson and brother of Harold's new wife. Tostig vows revenge.
25 December: Edward the Confessor falls ill.
28 December: Westminster Abbey, built by Edward the Confessor, is dedicated.
1066
4 January: Edward the Confessor dies. Legend has it that, on his deathbed, Edward is cunningly deceived by Harold into bestowing his blessing on the earl's claims as his successor as king.
5 January: Harold is elected by the English nobles to succeed Edward.
6 January: Edward is buried in Westminster Abbey. Harold is crowned there (as Harold II).
William immediately begins preparations to invade England, building an immense fleet of some 700 warships and transports at Dives-sur-Mer on the Normandy coast.
April: The appearance of Halley's Comet is regarded as a bad omen.
May: The exiled Tostig attempts an invasion, fails and retreats to Scotland.
8 September: Harold and his troops have remained on the Isle of Wight for the whole summer in anticipation of an invasion by William. Now provisions run out and Harold disbands the army and returns to London.
On the same day, having been convinced by Tostig to invade England, Harald Hardraada, king of Norway, lands an invasion fleet of 200 warships at the mouth of the Tyne, where he meets Tostig and his 12 ships. They sail up the Ouse and take York.
12 September: The wind becoming more westerly, William decides to sail his fleet as far as St-Valéry-sur-Somme. Storms sink some of the ships, but most arrive unharmed two days later. Here they wait for the wind to change and blow from the south; sacred relics are carried in procession to influence it.
c. 18 September: Harold and his army of only about 2,000 troops begin a forced march north, travelling at a rate of 25 miles a day.
20 September: At Fulford, now a suburb of York, the invading Norwegians defeat an English force led by the earls Morcar and Edwin, both Harold's brothers-in-law.
24 September: Harold and his soldiers reach Tadcaster, 185 miles from London and only 9 miles from York.
25 September: Harold's army defeats the Norwegians and kills Tostig and Harald Hardraada at Stamford Bridge in Yorkshire. Harald Hardraada's son Olaf and the remnants of the Viking army are allowed to leave after Olaf swears an oath to maintain peace and friendship with Harold.
27 September: It is probably now that, late in the afternoon, the Norman fleet finally sets sail for England.
28 September: Possibly aware of the Norwegian incursion 250 miles to the north, William of Normandy lands in his ship, the Mora, as he begins his invasion of England. Traditionally the landing is thought to be at Pevensey on the coast of East Sussex. (Recent excavations may point to somewhere closer to Hastings as William's entry into England.) Stumbling as he leaps ashore, the duke allays the fears of his supporters – who see this as a bad omen – by holding aloft a handful of sand and shouting that he has already taken possession of his kingdom.
30 September: William and all but a handful of his troops sail to the port of Hastings, a much better base for an invading army. They begin a deliberate policy of rape, pillage and murder, to cow the local residents and ravage the countryside.
3 October: Harold and 1,000-1,500 troops undertake another forced march south.
6 October: While his troops continue on to London, Harold stops at Waltham Abbey to pray for victory. Messengers had been travelling between Harold and William, in an attempt to resolve the situation diplomatically. These negotiations now falter and fail.
11 October: Harold, having reached London, gathers together as many troops as he can and sets out for the south coast to meet William.
13 October: Harold's army reaches the rallying point at Caldbec Hill, 7 miles from Hastings. William's scouts spot them by mid-afternoon.
14 October: Harold is defeated and killed by William at Senlac Hill at the Battle of Hastings. Harold's brothers Gyrth and Leofwine are also killed. Harold's body is identified by his mistress Ealdgyth Swan-neck. His wife Ealdgyth is on her way north, seeking the protection of her brothers.
c. 20 October: Harold is buried. William is said to have ordered him to be interred on the seashore. Despite this, his grave has traditionally been thought to be at Waltham Abbey. However, new research seems to indicate that his final resting place is in the church at Bosham.
25 December: William is crowned king of England at Westminster Abbey. He later founds Battle Abbey as a blood offering to mark the location of Harold's last stand and death.
