Single-party period of the Republic of Turkey
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The single-party period of the Republic of Turkey begins with the Republican People's Party being the only party between 1925 and 1945. It ends with the establishment of National Development Party (Milli Kalkınma Partisi). End of single party period marked with Republican People's Party leaving the majority to Democratic Party in 1950. During this time a short period in 1930 Liberal Republican Party (Serbest Cumhuriyet Fırkası) established but dissolved by its founder. Also Progressive Republican Party (Terakkiperver Cumhuriyet Fırkası) was established between 1924-1925. Its leader was Kazım Karabekir. It was banned after rebellion of Sheikh Said.
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[edit] 1925-1938: Atatürk ("Eternal Chief")
With the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, efforts to modernise the country started. The institutions and constitutions of Western states such as France, Sweden, Italy, and Switzerland were analyzed and adapted according to the needs and characteristics of the Turkish nation. Highlighting the public's lack of knowledge regarding the intentions of President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the public cheered: "We are returning to the days of the first caliphs".[1] In order to establish reforms, Mustafa Kemal placed Fevzi Çakmak, Kazım Özalp and İsmet İnönü in important political positions. Mustafa Kemal capitalized on his reputation as an efficient military leader and spent the following years, up until his death in 1938, instituting wide-ranging and progressive political, economic, and social reforms. In doing so, he transformed Turkish society from perceiving itself as Muslim subjects of a vast Empire into citizens of a modern, democratic, and secular nation-state.
After the foundation of the Liberal Republican Party by Ali Fethi Okyar, religious groups joined the liberals and consequently, widespread bloody disorders took place, especially in the eastern territories. The Liberal Republican Party was dissolved on 17 November 1930 and no further attempt at a multiparty democracy was made until 1945.
[edit] Opposition, 1924–1927
In 1924, while the "Issue of Mosul" was on the table, Sheikh Said Piran began to organize the Sheikh Said Rebellion. Sheikh Said Piran was a wealthy Kurdish hereditary chieftain (Tribal chief) of a local Naqshbandi order. Piran emphasized the issue of religion; he not only opposed the abolition of the Caliphate, but also the adoption of civil codes based on Western models, the closure of religious orders, the ban on polygamy, and the new obligatory civil marriage. Piran stirred up his followers against the policies of the government, which he considered to be against Islam. In an effort to restore Islamic law, Piran's forces moved through the countryside, seized government offices and marched on the important cities of Elazığ and Diyarbakır.[2] Members of the government saw the Sheikh Said Rebellion as an attempt at a counter-revolution. They urged immediate military action to prevent its spread. The "Law for the Maintenance of Public Order" was passed to deal with the rebellion on 4 March 1925. It gave the government exceptional powers and included the authority to shut down subversive groups (The law was eventually repealed on 4 March 1929).
There were also parliamentarians in the GNA who were not happy with these changes. There were so many members who were denounced as opposition sympathizers at a private meeting of the Republican People's Party (CHP) that Mustafa Kemal expressed his fear of being among the minority in his own party.[3] He decided not to purge this group.[3] After a censure motion gave the chance to have a breakaway group, Kazım Karabekir, along with his friends, established such a group on 17 October 1924. The censure became a confidence vote at the CHP for Mustafa Kemal. On 8 November the motion was rejected by 148 votes to 18, and 41 votes were absent.[3] CHP held all but one seat in the parliament. After the majority of the CHP chose him[3] Mustafa Kemal said, "the Turkish nation is firmly determined to advance fearlessly on the path of the republic, civilization and progress".[3]
On 17 November 1924, the breakaway group officially established the Progressive Republican Party (PRP) with 29 deputies and the first multi-party system began. The PRP's economic program suggested liberalism, in contrast to the state socialism of CHP, and its social program was based on conservatism in contrast to the modernism of CHP. Leaders of the party strongly supported the Kemalist revolution in principle, but had different opinions on the cultural revolution and the principle of secularism.[4] The RPR was not against Mustafa Kemal's main positions as declared in its program. The program supported the main mechanisms for establishing secularism in the country and the civic law, or as stated, "the needs of the age" (article 3) and the uniform system of education (article 49).[3] These principles were set by the leaders at the onset. The only legal opposition became a home for all kinds of differing views.
During 1926, a plot to assassinate Mustafa Kemal was uncovered in İzmir. It originated with a former deputy who had opposed the abolition of the Caliphate and had a personal grudge. The trail turned from an inquiry of the planners of this attempt to an investigation carried out ostensibly to uncover subversive activities and actually used to undermine those with differing views regarding Kemal's cultural revolution. The sweeping investigation brought before the tribunal a large number of political opponents, including Karabekir, the leader of PRP. A number of surviving leaders of the Committee of Union and Progress, who were at best second-rank in the Turkish movement, including Cavid, Ahmed Şükrü, and Ismail Canbulat were found guilty of treason and hanged.[5] During these investigations there was a link that was uncovered among the members of the PRP to the Sheikh Said Rebellion. The PRP was dissolved following the outcomes of the trial. The pattern of organized opposition, however, was broken. This action was the only broad political purge during Atatürk's presidency. Mustafa Kemal's saying, "My mortal body will turn into dust, but the Republic of Turkey will last forever," was regarded as a will after the assassination attempt.[6]
[edit] Reforms
The country saw a steady process of secular Westernization which included the unification of education; the discontinuation of religious and other titles; the closure of Islamic courts and the replacement of Islamic canon law with a secular civil code modeled after Switzerland's and a penal code modeled after the Italian Penal Code; recognition of the equality between the sexes and the granting of full political rights to women on 5 December 1934; the language reform initiated by the newly founded Turkish Language Association; replacement of the Ottoman Turkish alphabet with the new Turkish alphabet derived from the Latin alphabet; the dress law (the wearing of a fez was outlawed); the law on family names; and many other reforms.
[edit] 1927 Census
The first census of the republic was on 1927. The census gathered data about literacy, economic and social values.
 Population Density, corrected |
 Population Density |
 Taxation |
 Widowhood |
 Adults |
 Literacy |
[edit] Opposition, 1930–1931
On August 11, 1930, Mustafa Kemal decided to try a multiparty movement once again and asked Ali Fethi Okyar to establish a new party. He insisted on the protection of secular reforms. The brand-new Liberal Republican Party succeeded all around the country. Without the establishment of a real political spectrum, once again, the party became the center to opposition of Atatürk's reforms, particularly in regard to the role of religion in public life.
On December 23, 1930, a chain of violent incidents occurred, starting with the rebellion of Islamic fundamentalists in Menemen, a small town in the Aegean region. This so-called Menemen Incident was considered a serious threat against secular reforms.
In November 1930, Ali Fethi Okyar dissolved his own party after seeing the rising fundamentalist threat. Mustafa Kemal never succeeded in establishing a long lasting multi-party parliamentary system. A more lasting multi-party period of the Republic of Turkey began in 1945. In 1950 the RPP released the majority position to the Democratic Party. There are arguments that Kemal did not promote direct democracy by dominating the country with his single party rule. The reason behind the failed experiments with pluralism during this period was that not all groups in the country had agreed to a minimal consensus regarding shared values (mainly secularism) and shared rules for conflict resolution. In response to such criticisms, Mustafa Kemal's biographer Andrew Mango said: "between the two wars, democracy could not be sustained in many relatively richer and better-educated societies. Atatürk's enlightened authoritarianism left a reasonable space for free private lives. More could not have been expected in his lifetime."[7] Even though, at times, he did not appear to be a democrat in his actions, he always supported the idea of eventually building a civil society; a system of totality of voluntary civic and social organizations and institutions that form the basis of a functioning society as opposed to the force-backed structures of the state. In one of his many speeches about the importance of democracy, Mustafa Kemal said in the year 1933:
| “ | Republic means the democratic administration of the state. We founded the Republic, reaching its tenth year. It should enforce all the requirements of democracy as the time comes[8] | ” |
[edit] Kurdish rebellions
There have been several Kurdish rebellions in the 1920s and the 1930th: Koçkiri Rebellion, Sheikh Said Rebellion, Dersim Rebellion, Ararat rebellion. They all have been suppressed by the Turkish Army. In particular, due to Dersim Rebellion in 1937-38 thousands of Alevi Kurds[9] were killed by the Turkish Army and thousands more were taken into exile, depopulating the province. A key component of the turkification process was the policy of massive population resettlement, a result of the 1934 law on resettlement, a policy targeting the region of Dersim as one of its first test cases with disastrous consequences for the local population[10].
[edit] Foreign policies
Atatürk's foreign policy was aligned with his motto, "peace at home and peace in the world."[11] a perception of peace linked to his project of civilization and modernization.[12]
Turkey was admitted to the League of Nations in July 1932.
[edit] 1938-1950: İnönü (National Chief)
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Atatürk's successor after his death on November 10, 1938 was Ismet Inönü. Ismet Inönü was a strong believer in caution and preparation in state management. During his presidency, two forces continuously struggled for dominance. One group wanted to increase the control over state functions, while the other group wanted to debate domestic and foreign affairs. Inönü's main legacy was the method he left to Turkey to balance these forces.
Inönü did not have much opportunity to balance these forces, as World War II was about to break out. Inönü sided with the group seeking more control over state functions. His move was opposed by a large group of politicians, journalists, landowners and elites from different segments who join the opposing camp.
Inönü's policies did not follow the course of complete suppression of expression or fully representative democracy: he personally forced the system into multi-party politics. The politics of Anatolia did not yield to personal politics because of the geopolitical position. The history of the Ottoman Empire shows that Turkish state can not change its politics with its neighbours as easily as it can change a sultan[opinion]. However, the Turkish state needed a leader to mobilize the nation for its own strategic goals. Turkey needed a leader without having the full control of presidency. Multi-party project gave that chance to Turkey. Multi-party politics were shaped during Inönü's watch. In Turkish multi-party politics, there is a leader who controls a party that is balanced with other parties. Besides the definition of presidency, it also produced different definitions of freedom, equality, and justice. Multi-party politics introduced coups into the system, which acts as mandatory shift in the political party design. If we say Atatürk defined the nation, Inönü defined the politics of that nation[opinion].
[edit] Politics before World War II
[edit] Politics of World War II
In World War II, Turkey decided to have active neutrality policy throughout the war but were considered "wobblies" by the Allies, since under the Ottoman Empire, Turkey had attacked Russia. Turkey via its diplomacy and thanks to the prevailing nationalism, thus remained safe for the majority of the war. On 23 February 1945, when the defeat of Nazi Germany seemed inevitable, the Turkish Republic declared war on Germany and Japan, thereby qualifying for membership to the United Nations. No Turkish troops took part in battle. Despite her previous World War I alliance with Germany, Turkey had interests with the Western powers and met with the War time leaders Roosevelt and Churchill. The latter advocated for Turkey's entrance into the War early on, but Roosevelt only wanted neutrality; the Turkish government agreed.[citation needed]
[edit] Politics after World War II
[edit] Notes
- ^ Mango, Atatürk, 394
- ^ Patrick Kinross, Atatürk, The Rebirth of a Nation, 397
- ^ a b c d e f Mango, Ataturk, 418
- ^ Weiker, Book Review of Zürcher's "Political Opposition in the Early Turkish Republic: The Progressive Republican Party, 1924–1925", 297–298
- ^ Touraj Atabaki, Erik Jan Zürcher, 2004, Men of Order: authoritarian modernization under Ataturk and Reza Shah, I.B.Tauris, ISBN 1860644260, page 207
- ^ http://www.tsk.mil.tr/eng/Anitkabir/p24.html TSK Anitkabir sayfa 24
- ^ Mango, Atatürk, 536
- ^ İnan, Atatürk Hakkında Hatıralar ve Belgeler, 260
- ^ The Suppression of the Dersim Rebellion in Turkey (1937-38) Page 4
- ^ George J Andreopoulos, Genocide, page 11
- ^ Mango, Atatürk 526
- ^ Prof. Dr. Hamza Eroğlu. "Peace at home and peace in the world" (in Turkish). http://www.atam.gov.tr/index.php?Page=DergiIcerik&IcerikNo=72. Retrieved 2008-01-01. "“Yurtta Sulh” herşeyden önce ülkede, o insanın, insanca yaşamasını, insanlık tıynetinin gereğinin tanınmasını ifade eder"."
[edit] See also
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