Mindfulness (Buddhism)
Mindfulness (Pali: sati, Sanskrit: smṛti) plays a central role in the teaching of Buddhist meditation where it is affirmed that "correct" or "right" mindfulness (Pali: sammā-sati, Sanskrit samyak-smṛti) is the critical factor in the path to liberation and subsequent enlightenment.
For more on the concept in early Buddhism, see also sampajañña.
Described as a calm awareness of one's body functions, feelings, content of consciousness, or consciousness itself, it is the seventh element of the Noble Eightfold Path, the practice of which supports analysis resulting in the development of wisdom (Pali: paññā, Sanskrit: prajñā). The Satipatthana Sutta (Sanskrit: Smṛtyupasthāna Sūtra) is one of the foremost early texts dealing with mindfulness. A key innovative teaching of the Buddha was that meditative stabilisation must be combined with liberating discernment.[1]
Mindfulness practice, inherited from the Buddhist tradition, is increasingly being employed in Western psychology to alleviate a variety of mental and physical conditions, including obsessive-compulsive disorder and anxiety and in the prevention of relapse in depression and drug addiction.[2] See also Mindfulness (psychology).
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[edit] Terminology
The Buddhist term translated into English as "mindfulness" originates in the Pali term sati and its Sanskrit counterpart smṛti. The latter was translated into Tibetan as trenpa (wylie: dran pa) and Chinese as nian 念.
The Pali language scholar Thomas William Rhys Davids (1881) first translated sati as English mindfulness in sammā-sati "Right Mindfulness; the active, watchful mind".[3] Noting that Daniel John Gogerly (1845) initially rendered sammā-sati as "Correct meditation",[4] Davids explained, "sati is literally 'memory' but is used with reference to the constantly repeated phrase 'mindful and thoughtful' (sato sampagâno); and means that activity of mind and constant presence of mind which is one of the duties most frequently inculcated on the good Buddhist."[5]
John D. Dunne, an associate professor at the University of Emory whose current research focuses especially on the concept of "mindfulness" in both theoretical and practical contexts, asserts that the translation of sati and smṛti as mindfulness is confusing and that a number of Buddhist scholars are trying to establish "retention" as the preferred alternative.[6]
The English term mindfulness has been in use for centuries, long predating its use in the Buddhist context. The OED defines it as "The state or quality of being mindful; attention; regard", with obsolete meanings of "memory" and "intention, purpose". This word was first recorded as myndfulness in 1530 (Palsgrave translates French pensee) , as mindfulnesse in 1561, and mindfulness in 1817. Morphologically earlier terms include mindful (first recorded in 1340), mindfully (1382), and the obsolete mindiness (ca. 1200).[7]
[edit] Sanskrit
The Sanskrit word smṛti स्मृति (smriti, smRti, or sm'Rti) literally means "that which is remembered", and refers both to "mindfulness" in Buddhism and "a category of metrical texts" in Hinduism, considered second in authority to the Śruti scriptures.
Monier Monier-Williams's Sanskrit-English Dictionary differentiates eight meanings of smṛti स्मृति, "remembrance, reminiscence, thinking of or upon, calling to mind, memory":
- memory as one of the Vyabhicāri-bhāvas [transient feelings]
- Memory (personified either as the daughter of Daksha and wife of Aṅgiras or as the daughter of Dharma and Medhā)
- the whole body of sacred tradition or what is remembered by human teachers (in contradistinction to Śruti or what is directly heard or revealed to the Rishis; in its widest acceptation this use of the term Smṛti includes the 6 Vedangas, the Sūtras both Śrauta and Grhya, the Manusmṛti, the Itihāsas (e.g., the Mahābhārata and Ramayana), the Puranas and the Nītiśāstras, "according to such and such a traditional precept or legal text"
- the whole body of codes of law as handed down memoriter or by tradition (esp. the codes of Manusmṛti, Yājñavalkya Smṛti and the 16 succeeding inspired lawgivers) … all these lawgivers being held to be inspired and to have based their precepts on the Vedas
- symbolical name for the number 18 (from the 18 lawgivers above)
- a kind of meter
- name of the letter g- ग्
- desire, wish[8]
[edit] Chinese
Buddhist scholars translated smṛti with the Chinese word nian 念 "study; read aloud; think of; remember; remind". Nian is commonly used in modern Standard Mandarin words such as guannian 觀念 (观念) "concept; idea", huainian 懷念 (怀念) "cherish the memory of; think of", nianshu 念書 (念书) "read; study", and niantou 念頭 (念头) "thought; idea; intention". Two specialized Buddhist terms are nianfo 念佛 "chant the name of Buddha; pray to Buddha" and nianjing 念經 (念经) "chant/recite sutras".
This Chinese character nian 念 is composed of jin 今 "now; this" and xin 心 "heart; mind". Bernhard Karlgren graphically explains nian meaning "reflect, think; to study, learn by heart, remember; recite, read – to have 今 present to 心 the mind".[9] The Chinese character nian or nien 念 is pronounced as Korean yeom or yŏm 염, Japanese ネン or nen, and Vietnamese niệm.
A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms gives basic translations of nian: "Recollection, memory; to think on, reflect; repeat, intone; a thought; a moment." [10]
The Digital Dictionary of Buddhism gives more detailed translations of nian "mindfulness, memory":
- Recollection (Skt. smṛti; Tib. dran pa). To recall, remember. That which is remembered. The function of remembering. The operation of the mind of not forgetting an object. Awareness, concentration. Mindfulness of the Buddha, as in Pure Land practice. In Abhidharma-kośa theory, one of the ten omnipresent factors 大地法. In Yogâcāra, one of the five 'object-dependent' mental factors 五別境.
- Settled recollection; (Skt. sthāpana; Tib. gnas pa). To ascertain one's thoughts.
- To think within one's mind (without expressing in speech). To contemplate; meditative wisdom.
- Mind, consciousness.
- A thought; a thought-moment; an instant of thought. (Skt. kṣana)
- Patience, forbearance.[11]
[edit] Related terms and practices
Although sati/smrti is the primary term that is usually invoked by the word mindfulness in a Buddhist context, it has been asserted "in Buddhist discourse, there are three terms that together map the field of mindfulness . . . [in their Sanskrit variants] smṛti (Pali: sati), samprajaña (Pali: sampajañña) and apramāda (Pali: appamada)."[12] All three terms are sometimes (confusingly) translated as "mindfulness," but they all have specific shades of meaning and the former two might be glossed as "awareness" and "vigilance," respectively. In the Satipatthana Sutta, sati and sampajañña are combined with atappa (Pali; Sanskrit: ātapaḥ), or "ardency," and the three together comprise yoniso manisikara (Pali; Sanskrit: yoniśas manaskāraḥ), "appropriate attention."[13]
In a publicly available correspondence between Bhikkhu Bodhi and B. Alan Wallace, Bodhi has described Ven. Nyanaponika Thera's views on "right mindfulness" and sampajañña in the following fashion: "... He held that in the proper practice of right mindfulness, sati has to be integrated with sampajañña, clear comprehension, and it is only when these two work together that right mindfulness can fulfill its intended purpose."[14]
| English | Pali | Sanskrit | Chinese | Tibetan |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| mindfulness | sati | smṛti स्मृति | nian 念 | trenpa (wylie: dran pa) |
| awareness | sampajañña | samprajaña संप्रज्ञान | zheng zhi li 正知力 | sheshin (wylie: shes bzhin) |
| vigilance/heedfulness | appamada | apramāda ज्ञानकोश | bu fang yi 不放逸； wu zong yi 無縱逸；li zhu fang yi 離諸放逸 | bakyö (wylie: bag yod) |
| ardency | atappa | ātapaḥ आतप | yong meng 勇猛 | nyima (wylie: nyi ma) |
| attention/engagement | manasikara | manaskāraḥ मनस्कार | ru li zuo yi 如理作意 | yila jeypa (wylie: yid la byed pa) |
| foundation of mindfulness | satipaṭṭhāna | smṛtyupasthāna | ? | trenpa neybar zagpa (wylie: dran pa nye bar gzhag pa) |
[edit] Ten forms of mindfulness
In the Āgamas of early Buddhism, there are ten forms of mindfulness. According to the Ekottara Āgama, these ten are:[15]
- Mindfulness of the Buddha
- Mindfulness of the Dharma
- Mindfulness of the Saṃgha
- Mindfulness of giving
- Mindfulness of the heavens
- Mindfulness of stopping and resting
- Mindfulness of discipline
- Mindfulness of breathing
- Mindfulness of the body
- Mindfulness of death
According to Nan Huaijin, the Ekottara Āgama emphasizes mindfulness of breathing more than any of the other methods, and teaches the most specifically on teaching this one form of mindfulness.[16]
[edit] Continuous mindfulness practice
In addition to various forms of meditation based around specific sessions, there are mindfulness training exercises that develop awareness throughout the day using designated environmental cues. The aim is to make mindfulness essentially continuous. Examples of such cues are the hourly chimes of clocks, red lights at traffic junctions and crossing the threshold of doors. The mindfulness itself can take the form of nothing more than taking three successive breaths while remembering they are a conscious experience of body activity within mind[17]. This approach is particularly helpful when it is difficult to establish a regular meditation practice.
[edit] Zen criticism
Some Zen teachers emphasize the potential dangers of misunderstanding "mindfulness".
Gudo Wafu Nishijima criticizes the use of the term of mindfulness and idealistic interpretations of the practice from the Zen standpoint:
However recently many so-called Buddhist teachers insist the importance of 'mindfulness.' But such a kind of attitudes might be insistence that Buddhism might be a kind of idealistic philosophy. Therefore actually speaking I am much afraid that Buddhism is misunderstood as if it was a kind of idealistic philosophy. However we should never forget that Buddhism is not an idealistic philosophy, and so if someone in Buddhism reveres mindfulness, we should clearly recognize that he or she can never be a Buddhist at all.[18]
Muho Noelke, the abbot of Antaiji, explains the pitfalls of consciously seeking mindfulness.
We should always try to be active coming out of samadhi. For this, we have to forget things like "I should be mindful of this or that". If you are mindful, you are already creating a separation ("I - am - mindful - of - ...."). Don't be mindful, please! When you walk, just walk. Let the walk walk. Let the talk talk (Dogen Zenji says: "When we open our mouths, it is filled with Dharma"). Let the eating eat, the sitting sit, the work work. Let sleep sleep.[19]
[edit] Scientific research
Mindfulness practice, inherited from the Buddhist tradition, is increasingly being employed in Western psychology to alleviate a variety of mental and physical conditions. Scientific research into mindfulness generally falls under the umbrella of positive psychology. Research has been ongoing over the last twenty or thirty years, with a surge of interest over the last decade in particular.[citation needed]
[edit] See also
- Buddhism and psychology
- Buddhist meditation, Satipatthana, Sampajanna
- Dennis Lewis
- Henepola Gunaratana
- John Garrie
- S.N. Goenka
- Mahasi Sayadaw
- Mahasati Meditation
- Metacognition
- Thich Nhat Hanh
[edit] References
- Boccio, Frank Jude (2004). Mindfulness Yoga: The Awakened Union of Breath, Body and Mind ISBN 0861713354
- Brahm, Ajahn (2005). Mindfulness, Bliss, and Beyond: A Meditator's Handbook. Wisdom Publications.
- Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola (2002). Mindfulness in Plain English. Wisdom Publications.
- Hanh, Thich Nhat (1996). The Miracle of Mindfulness: A Manual on Meditation. Beacon Press.
- Weiss, Andrew (2004). Beginning Mindfulness: Learning the Way of Awareness. New World Library
- Siegel, Ronald D. (2010). The Mindfulness Solution: Everyday Practices for Everyday Problems. The Guilford Press
- Hoopes, Aaron (2007) "Zen Yoga: A Path to Enlightenment through Breathing, Movement and Meditation". Kodansha International.
[edit] Footnotes
- ^ Alexander Wynne, The origin of Buddhist meditation. Routledge, 2007, page 73.
- ^ http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/2/4/259.full
- ^ T. W. Rhys Davids, tr., 1881, Buddhist Suttas, Clarendon Press, p. 107.
- ^ D. J. Gogerly, "On Buddhism", Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1845, pp. 7-28 and 90-112.
- ^ Davids, 1881, p. 145.
- ^ lecture, Stanford University Center for Compassion and Altruism Research and Education, c 18:03[1]
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., 2002
- ^ Monier-Williams Online Dictionary. N.B.: these definitions are simplified and wikified.
- ^ Bernhard Karlgren, 1923, Analytic Dictionary of Chinese and Sino-Japanese, Paul Geunther, p. 207. Dover reprint.
- ^ William Edward Soothill and Lewis Hodous, 1937, A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms: with Sanskrit and English Equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali Index.
- ^ Digital Dictionary of Buddhism
- ^ "Mindfulness and the Mind," by Subhuti. Madhyamavani Online
- ^ "Mindfulness Defined," by Thanissaro Bhikku. pg 2
- ^ Wallace & Bodhi (2006), p. 4. According to this correspondence, Ven. Nyanaponika spend his last ten years living with and being cared for by Bodhi. Bodhi refers to Nyanaponika as "my closest kalyāṇamitta in my life as a monk."
- ^ Nan Huaijin. Working Toward Enlightenment: The Cultivation of Practice. York Beach: Samuel Weiser. 1993. pp. 118-119, 138-140.
- ^ Nan Huaijin. Working Toward Enlightenment: The Cultivation of Practice. York Beach: Samuel Weiser. 1993. p. 146.
- ^ mindfulness in breathing
- ^ "On Mindfulness"
- ^ "Stop being mindful"
[edit] External links
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Look up 念 in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
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Look up Smrti in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
- Mindfulness in Plain English
- Mindfulness Defined by Thanissaro Bhikkhu
- Muho Noelke: "Stop being mindful"
- Mindfulness in a nutshell
- Mindfulness Meditation in Adaptation Practice
