Jews and Judaism in the African diaspora
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The Jewish people have had a long history in Africa, dating to the Biblical era. As the African diaspora grew, because of the movement of Africans and their descendants throughout the world, African Jews were part of that diaspora. In addition, Judaism has spread through the African diaspora, largely through conversion. While many adhere to traditional Jewish movements, there are a number of Jewish organizations unique to the African diaspora.
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[edit] Definitions of Jews and Judaism
[edit] Mainstream Judaism
Judaism shares some of the characteristics of a nation, an ethnicity, a religion, and a culture, making the definition of who is a Jew vary slightly depending on whether a religious or national approach to identity is used. While there is much debate about the details, by most definitions, Jews include those who have a Jewish ethnic background and those without Jewish parents who have converted to Judaism.
[edit] Other Jewish groups
Some Jewish groups in the African diaspora, with no affiliation to mainstream Judaism, consider themselves the true descendants of the Israelites of the Torah. Most notable of these groups are the Black Hebrews and the Black Hebrew Israelites, mentioned further on in this article. They do not consider Semitic Jews to be "true Jews," and may be subject to the same converse consideration.
[edit] North America
[edit] Mainstream Judaism
The American Jewish community includes African-American Jews and other Jews of African descent. Black Jews belong to each of the major American Jewish denominations — Orthodox, Conservative, Reform — and to the smaller movements as well. Like their white Jewish counterparts, there are also Black Jewish secularists and Black ethnic Jews who may rarely or never take part in religious practices.[1]
Estimates of the number of Black Jews in the United States range from 20,000[2] to 200,000.[3]
[edit] Black Hebrews and Black Hebrew Israelites
The term "Black Jews" is sometimes used to describe Black Hebrews, groups of people mostly of Black African ancestry situated mainly in the United States who believe they are descendants of the ancient Israelites. Black Hebrews adhere in varying degrees to the religious beliefs and practices of mainstream Judaism. They are generally not accepted as Jews by the greater Jewish community, and many Black Hebrews consider themselves — and not mainstream Jews — to be the only authentic Jews. Although cordial relationships exist between some of these groups and the mainstream Jewish community, they are generally not considered to be members of that community, since they have not formally converted nor do they have Jewish parents.[4]
[edit] Europe
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[edit] France
The total number of Jews of Black African descent in France is not known, but there are approximately 250 Black Jews in Paris.[5] Fraternité Judéo-Noire, based in Paris, advocates on behalf of these Black Jews.
[edit] Middle East
[edit] Jews from Arab states in North Africa
The creation of the modern State of Israel in 1948 and the subsequent expulsion and emigration of Jews from the neighboring Arab states led to growing numbers of non-European Jews settling in Israel, among them Jews from North Africa — chiefly Egypt, Tunisia, and Libya. For these African Jews, emigration to Israel was the end of the Jewish diaspora and the beginning of the African diaspora.[6][7]
Many North African Jews emigrated to Europe, utilizing citizenship granted in the colonial period. Thus some Libyan Jews immigrated to Italy while some Algerian, Tunisian, and Moroccan Jews immigrated to France. Subsequent events, such as the Algerian War for Independence, the 1956 Suez Crisis, and the Six-Day War in 1967, led to the almost complete emigration of the Jews still remaining in Egypt, Algeria, and Morocco. Today the only viable Jewish communities in North Africa are in the island of Djerba and in Morocco.[6][8]
[edit] Beta Israel
Individual Ethiopian Jews had lived in the Land of Israel prior to the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. A youth group arrived in Israel in the 1950s to undergo training in Hebrew education and returned to Ethiopia to educate young Jews there. Also, Ethiopian Jews had been trickling into Israel prior to the 1970s.[citation needed]
During the 1970s, members of the Beta Israel, a community of Ethiopian Jews, began to immigrate to Israel after Ovadia Yosef, the Sephardi Chief Rabbi of Israel, ruled that they were descendents of the Biblical Israelites and that they should be eligible for citizenship under Israel's Law of Return. As famine gripped Ethiopia during the 1980s, several thousand Ethiopian Jews were airlifted to Israel in Operation Moses, but political instability in Ethiopia and Sudan made further immigration impossible. In 1991, when circumstances changed, more than 14,000 Ethiopian Jews were flown to Israel in Operation Solomon.[9]
Absorption of the Ethiopian Jews into Israeli society has been difficult. The Ethiopian Jewish community's internal challenges have been complicated by limited but real racist attitudes on the part of some elements of Israeli society and the official establishment.[10] According to the Anti-Defamation League, there are few reports of discrimination in Israel, a country that has little experience with interracial relations.[11] Most Israelis support the Ethiopian Jews, who have received more aid from the Israeli government than any previous immigrant group.[11] One study attributed some of the problems to the model of absorption chosen by the Israeli government. To prepare for the absorption the Ethiopian Jews, Israel adopted two "Master Plans", the first in 1985 and the second in 1991. Like earlier absoption policies, both Master Plans were based on the assumption that the new immigrants were broadly similar to Israel's existing majority population.[12]
The Israeli Chief Rabbinate required the new arrivals to undergo certain conversion procedures, which many of the Ethiopian Jews considered an insult.[11] In 1996, the Magen David Adom destroyed all blood that had been donated by Ethiopian Jews due to fear it might be contaminated with HIV or AIDS. Authorities pointed to the high incidence of AIDS and HIV in Ethiopia to explain the policy.[13]
According to a 1999 report commissioned by Israel's Ministry of Immigrant Absorption, 75% of the Ethiopian Jews living in Israel could not read or write Hebrew. Nearly 50% could not converse in Hebrew. Because the Ethiopian immigrants came from a subsistence economy, they were not prepared to work in an industrialized society such as Israel's.[14] An earlier study by the Brookdate Institute of Gerontology and Adult Development found that 66% of the Ethiopian women and 85% of the Ethiopian men in the city of Kiryat Gat could speak Hebrew.[15]
In 2008, the unemployment rate among Ethiopian Jews in Israel was 18%, nearly three times that of the general Israeli population.[16][17] A 2005 study found that the poverty rate among Ethiopian Jewish families was 60%, compared with 20% among all Israeli families.[18]
[edit] Ethiopian Heritage Museum: Rehovot, Israel
A museum dedicated to the heritage and culture of the Ethiopian Jewish community is planned for Rehovot. Rehovot was chosen as the site of the museum because numerous Ethiopian Jews live in Rehovot and nearby towns.
The museum is expected to include a model of an Ethiopian village, an artificial stream, a garden, classrooms, an amphitheater, and a memorial to Ethiopian Zionist activists and Ethiopian Jews who died en route to Israel.[19]
[edit] See also
- List of Jews in the African diaspora
- Alliance of Black Jews
- Groups claiming an affiliation with the ancient Israelites
- Jewish diaspora
- Jewish ethnic divisions
[edit] References
- ^ Wolfson, Bernard J. (1999). "African American Jews". in Chireau, Yvonne; Deutsch, Nathaniel. Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 33–34. ISBN 0195112571.
- ^ David Whelan (May 8, 2003). "A Fledgling Grant Maker Nurtures Young Jewish 'Social Entrepreneurs'". The Chronicle of Philanthropy. http://philanthropy.com/jobs/2003/05/15/20030515-359473.htm. Retrieved February 8, 2009.
- ^ Michael Gelbwasser (April 10, 1998). "Organization for black Jews claims 200,000 in U.S.". j.. http://www.jewishsf.com/content/2-0-/module/displaystory/story_id/8426/. Retrieved February 8, 2009.
- ^ Chireau, Yvonne (1999). "Black Culture and Black Zion". in Chireau, Yvonne; Deutsch, Nathaniel. Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 21–24. ISBN 0195112571.
- ^ "Black Jew Calls for Black Synagogue in France". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. November 10, 2008. http://jta.org/news/article/2008/11/10/1000876/black-jew-calls-for-black-synagogue-in-france. Retrieved August 9, 2009.
- ^ a b Aharoni, Ada (August 2002). "The Forced Migration of Jews from Arab Countries and Peace". Historical Society of Jews from Egypt. http://www.hsje.org/forcedmigration.htm. Retrieved August 8, 2009.
- ^ Meron, Ya'akov (September 1995). "Why Jews Fled the Arab Countries". Middle East Quarterly. http://www.meforum.org/article/263. Retrieved August 8, 2009.
- ^ Borowiec, Andrew (1999). Modern Tunisia: A Democratic Apprenticeship. Westport, Conn.: Praeger. p. 117. ISBN 0275961362.
- ^ Brandt, Joshua (December 31, 2001). "Ethiopians finding identities in Israel". Israel 21C. http://www.israel21c.org/bin/en.jsp?enDispWho=Articles^l25&enPage=BlankPage&enDisplay=view&enDispWhat=object&enVersion=0&enZone=Democracy&. Retrieved August 8, 2008.
- ^ Nash, Onolemhemhen Durrenda; Gessesse, Kebede (1998). The Black Jews of Ethiopia: The Last Exodus. Scarecrow Press. p. 40. ISBN 0-8108-3414-6.
- ^ a b c Wall, Harry. "Ethiopian Controversy in Israel: It's Not Racism". Anti-Defamation League. http://www.adl.org/presrele/IslME_62/2659_62.asp. Retrieved August 8, 2008.
- ^ Fenter, Tovi (1998). "Ethnicity, Citizenship, Planning and Gender: the case of Ethiopian immigrant women in Israel" (PDF). Gender, Place and Culture. pp. 181–182. http://www.tau.ac.il/~tobiws/ethiopian.pdf. Retrieved March 25, 2009.
- ^ Sanabatu, Ayanawo Farada (January 25, 2007). "Blood Banks to Accept Donations from Ethiopian Immigrants". Haaretz. http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/817427.html. Retrieved August 8, 2008.
- ^ "World: Ethiopian Jews struggle in Israel". BBC Online. November 17, 1999. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/524662.stm. Retrieved March 25, 2009.
- ^ Fenter, Tovi (1998). "Ethnicity, Citizenship, Planning and Gender: the case of Ethiopian immigrant women in Israel" (PDF). Gender, Place and Culture. p. 185. http://www.tau.ac.il/~tobiws/ethiopian.pdf. Retrieved April 3, 2009.
- ^ Sinai, Ruth (February 10, 2008). "Gov't Okays Program to Help Ethiopian Immigrants Integrate Better". Haaretz. http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/952825.html. Retrieved August 8, 2009.
- ^ Salomon, Ido (May 28, 2008). "Unemployment Rate Hits 13-Year Low in 2008 First Fiscal Quarter". Haaretz. http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/988048.html. Retrieved August 8, 2008.
- ^ Fisher-Ilan, Allyn (March 14, 2005). "Ethiopian Jews Battle Poverty, Prejudice in Israel". Sudan Tribune. http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article8518. Retrieved August 8, 2008.
- ^ Sanbetu, Ayanawu Farada (July 13, 2005). "Museum on history of Ethiopian Jewry to be built in Rehovot". Haaretz. http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=599229. Retrieved March 25, 2009.
[edit] Further reading
- Chireau, Yvonne; Deutsch, Nathaniel, eds (1999). Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195112571.
- Kaye/Kantrowitz, Melanie (2007). The Colors of Jews: Racial Politics and Radical Diasporism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253349028.
- Khanga, Yelena; Jacoby, Susan (1994). Soul to Soul: A Black Russian Jewish Woman's Search for Her Roots. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393311554.
- Lester, Julius (1995) [1988]. Lovesong: Becoming a Jew. New York: Arcade Publishing. ISBN 1559703164.
- Tobin, Diane; Tobin, Gary A.; Rubin, Scott (2005). In Every Tongue: The Racial and Ethnic Diversity of the Jewish People. San Francisco: Institute for Jewish & Community Research. ISBN 1893671011.
- Walker, Rebecca (2000). Black, White & Jewish: Autobiography of a Shifting Self. New York: Riverhead Books. ISBN 1573221694.
[edit] External links
[edit] News and articles
- "Black Jews". Time. September 27, 1937. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,771958,00.html. Retrieved August 8, 2008.
- Kay Holzinger (1998). "Black Jews". The Encyclopedia of Cults, Sects, and New Religions. Religious Movements Homepage Project at the University of Virginia. Archived from the original on April 8, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060408152951/religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/blackjews.html. Retrieved August 8, 2008.
- Rachel Pomerance (June 18, 2008). "Judaism Drawing More Black Americans". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. http://www.ajc.com/living/content/living/stories/2008/06/18/black_jewish_faith.html. Retrieved March 20, 2009.
- Ita Yankovich (January 13, 2008). "Minority Within a Minority". Aish HaTorah. http://www.aish.com/jewishissues/jewishsociety/Minority_within_a_Minority.asp. Retrieved August 8, 2008.
- "Alysa Stanton becomes first African-American Rabbi". Aidishe. May 22, 2009. http://aidishe.com/en/news/276-alysa-stanton-becomes-first-african-american-rabbi. Retrieved May 22, 2009.
[edit] Other sites of interest
- "Authentic Jews". http://www.authenticjews.com., a site that asserts that the vast majority of authentic Jews "were and are Black" and that "99% of all so-called Black Americans are Jews".
- "Black & Jewish, A Community for Jews of Color". http://www.blackandjewish.com/bajpages/bajindex.html., a site for "Black American Jews and their friends to communicate".
- "Black and Jewish Web Page". http://www.angelfire.com/ca/dorseydon/index.html., a site for people "interested in learning about the diversity which exists within Judaism".
- "BlackJews.org, a Project of the International Israelite Board of Rabbis". http://www.blackjews.org., a site maintained by the Commandment Keepers.
- "Center for Afro-Jewish Studies". http://www.temple.edu/isrst/Affiliates/CAJS.asp. at Temple University, a "research and learning institution dedicated to scholarship on Afro-Jewish peoples and developing awareness of the historical, political, religious, and philosophical issues that arise from the convergence of the African and Jewish diasporas".
- "Jewish Multiracial Network". http://jewishmultiracialnetwork.org., a group whose mission is "to build a community of Jews of color and multiracial Jewish families".
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