Alcoholic beverage

An alcoholic beverage is a drink containing ethanol (commonly called alcohol). Alcoholic beverages are divided into three general classes: beers, wines, and spirits.

Alcoholic beverages are consumed in most countries of the world. According to the International Center for Alcohol Policies (ICAP), over 100 countries have laws that regulate their production, sale, and consumption.^[1] In particular, such laws specify the minimum age at which a person may legally buy or drink them. This minimum age varies between 16 and 25 years, depending upon the nation and the type of drink. Most nations set it at 18 years of age.^[1]

The production and consumption of alcohol occurs in most cultures of the world, from hunter-gatherer peoples to nation-states.^[2][3] Alcoholic beverages are often an important part of social events in these cultures. In many cultures, drinking plays a significant role in social interaction — mainly because of alcohol’s neurological effects.

Alcohol is a psychoactive drug that has a depressant effect. A high blood alcohol content is usually considered to be legal drunkenness because it reduces attention and slows reaction speed. Alcohol can be addictive, and the state of addiction to alcohol is known as alcoholism.

Contents 1 Types 1.1 Beer 1.2 Wine 1.3 Spirits 2 Alcohol content of beverages 2.1 Standard drinks 3 Serving sizes 3.1 United Kingdom 3.2 Europe outside the UK 4 Flavoring 5 Uses 6 Alcohol consumption by country 7 Outright prohibition of alcohol 7.1 United States 7.2 Europe 7.3 Other countries 8 Prohibition of drinking alcohol in public places 8.1 United States 8.2 Other countries 9 Age restrictions 9.1 Argentina 9.2 Australia 9.3 Canada 9.4 Europe 9.5 Hong Kong 9.6 India 9.7 Japan 9.8 Korea 9.9 Nordic countries 9.10 United States 10 Restrictions on production 10.1 New Zealand 10.2 United Kingdom 10.3 United States 11 Restrictions on sale and possession 11.1 Canada 11.2 Nordic countries 11.3 Denmark 11.4 Norway 11.5 Sweden 11.6 United States 12 Drunk driving laws 13 Effects of alcohol on health 13.1 Short-term effects 13.2 Heart disease 13.3 Dementia 13.4 Cancer 13.5 Alcoholism 13.6 Diabetes 13.7 Stroke 13.8 Longevity 14 Mortality rate 15 Alcohol expectations 16 Alcohol and religion 17 History 17.1 Fermented beverages 17.2 Distilled beverages 17.3 Alcoholic beverages in American history 18 Chemistry and toxicology 19 The raw materials of alcoholic beverages 20 Ingredients 20.1 Grains 20.2 Juice of fruits 20.3 Vegetables 21 See also 22 References 23 External links

[edit] Types

Alcoholic beverages that have a lower alcohol content (beer and wine) are produced by fermentation of sugar- or starch-containing plant material. Beverages of higher alcohol content (spirits) are produced by fermentation followed by distillation.

[edit] Beer

Beer is the world's oldest^[2] and most widely consumed^[3] alcoholic beverage and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea.^[4] It is produced by the brewing and fermentation of starches which are mainly derived from cereal grains — most commonly malted barley although wheat, maize (corn), and rice are also used. Alcoholic beverages which are distilled after fermentation, fermented from non-cereal sources such as grapes or honey, or fermented from un-malted cereal grain, are not classified as beer.

The two main types of beer are lager and ale. Ale is further classified into varieties such as pale ale, stout, and brown ale.

Most beer is flavored with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative. Other flavorings, such as fruits or herbs, may also be used. The alcoholic strength of beer is usually 4% to 6% alcohol by volume (ABV), but it may be less than 1% or more than 20%.

Beer is part of the drinking culture of various nations and has acquired social traditions such as beer festivals, pub culture, pub games, and pub crawling.

The basics of brewing beer are shared across national and cultural boundaries. The beer-brewing industry is global in scope, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and thousands of smaller producers, which range from regional breweries to microbreweries .

[edit] Wine

Wine is produced from grapes, and fruit wine is produced from fruits such as plums, cherries, or apples. Wine involves a longer (complete) fermentation process and a long aging process (months or years) that results in an alcohol content of 9%–16% ABV. Sparkling wine can be made by adding a small amount of sugar before bottling, which causes a secondary fermentation to occur in the bottle.

[edit] Spirits

Unsweetened, distilled, alcoholic beverages that have an alcohol content of at least 20% ABV are called spirits.^[5] Spirits are produced by the distillation of a fermented base product. Distilling concentrates the alcohol and eliminates some of the congeners.

Spirits can be added to wines to create fortified wines, such as port and sherry.

[edit] Alcohol content of beverages

The concentration of alcohol in a beverage is usually stated as the percentage of alcohol by volume (ABV) or—in the United States—as proof. In the U.S., proof is twice the percentage of alcohol by volume at 60 degrees Fahrenheit (e.g., 80 proof = 40% ABV). Degrees proof were formerly used in the United Kingdom, where 100 degrees proof was equivalent to 57.1% ABV. Historically, this was the most dilute spirit that would sustain the combustion of gunpowder.

Ordinary distillation cannot produce alcohol of more than 95.6% ABV (191.2 proof) because at that point alcohol is an azeotrope with water. A spirit which contains a very high level of alcohol and does not contain any added flavoring is commonly called a neutral spirit. Generally, any distilled alcoholic beverage of 170 proof or higher is considered to be a neutral spirit.^[6]

Most yeasts cannot reproduce when the concentration of alcohol is higher than about 18%, so that is the practical limit for the strength of fermented beverages such as wine, beer, and sake. Strains of yeast have been developed that can reproduce in solutions of up to 25% ABV.

[edit] Standard drinks

A standard drink is a notional drink that contains a specified amount of pure alcohol. The standard drink is used in many countries to quantify alcohol intake. It is usually expressed as a measure of beer, wine, or spirits. One standard drink always contains the same amount of alcohol regardless of serving size or the type of alcoholic beverage.

The standard drink varies significantly from country to country. For example, it is 7.62 ml (6 grams) of alcohol in Austria, but in Japan it is 25 ml (19.75 grams).

In the United Kingdom, there is a system of units of alcohol which serves as a guideline for alcohol consumption. A single unit of alcohol is defined as 10 ml. The number of units present in a typical drink is printed on bottles. The system is intended as an aid to people who are regulating the amount of alcohol they drink; it is not used to determine serving sizes.

In the United States, the standard drink contains 0.6 US fluid ounces (18 ml) of alcohol. This is approximately the amount of alcohol in a 12-US-fluid-ounce (350 ml) glass of beer, a 5-US-fluid-ounce (150 ml) glass of wine, or a 1.5-US-fluid-ounce (44 ml) glass of a 40% ABV (80 proof) spirit.

[edit] Serving sizes

[edit] United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, serving size in licensed premises is regulated under the Weights and Measures Act (1985). Spirits (gin, whisky, rum, and vodka) must be sold in quantities of 25 ml or multiples thereof, or 35 ml or multiples thereof. A sign must be displayed stating whether the 25 ml or the 35 ml measure is being used.^[7]

Beer is typically served in pints (568 ml), but it can also be legally served in half-pints or third-pints. Traditionally, a crown stamp on a beer glass was used to indicate that the glass contained a full-sized measure. In 2008, after more than 300 years' use, this stamp was replaced by the Europe-wide mark “CE” (Conformite Europeenne). Leading breweries and pub companies campaigned against its removal.^[8]

[edit] Europe outside the UK

In bars and restaurants, beer is usually served in glasses of 400 or 500 ml, but this varies and may be as much as one litre.

In the Netherlands and Belgium, standard servings are 250 and 500 ml for pilsner; 300 and 330 ml for ales.

[edit] Flavoring

Alcohol is a moderately good solvent for many fatty substances and essential oils. This attribute facilitates the use of flavoring and coloring compounds in alcoholic beverages, especially distilled beverages. Flavors may be naturally present in the beverage’s base material. Beer and wine may be flavored before fermentation. Spirits may be flavored before, during, or after distillation.

Sometimes flavor is obtained by allowing the beverage to stand for months or years in oak barrels, usually American or French oak.

A few brands of spirits have fruit or herbs inserted into the bottle at the time of bottling.

[edit] Uses

In many countries, people drink alcoholic beverages at lunch and dinner. Studies have found that when food is eaten before drinking alcohol, alcohol absorption is reduced^[9] and the rate at which alcohol is eliminated from the blood is increased. The mechanism for the faster alcohol elimination appears to be unrelated to the type of food. The likely mechanism is food-induced increases in alcohol-metabolizing enzymes and liver blood flow.^[9]

At times and places of poor public sanitation (such as Medieval Europe), the consumption of alcoholic drinks was a way of avoiding water-borne diseases such as cholera. Small beer and faux wine, in particular, were used for this purpose. Although alcohol kills bacteria, its low concentration in these beverages would have had only a limited effect. More important was that the boiling of water (required for the brewing of beer) and the growth of yeast (required for fermentation of beer and wine) would tend to kill dangerous microorganisms. The alcohol content of these beverages allowed them to be stored for months or years in simple wood or clay containers without spoiling. For this reason, they were commonly kept aboard sailing vessels as an important (or even the sole) source of hydration for the crew, especially during the long voyages of the early modern period.

In cold climates, potent alcoholic beverages such as vodka are popularly seen as a way to “warm up” the body, possibly because alcohol is a quickly absorbed source of food energy and because it dilates peripheral blood vessels (peripherovascular dilation). This is a misconception because the “warmth” is actually caused by a transfer of heat from the body’s core to its extremities, where it is quickly lost to the environment. However, the perception alone may be welcomed when only comfort, rather than hypothermia, is a concern.

[edit] Alcohol consumption by country

[edit] Outright prohibition of alcohol

Some countries forbid alcoholic beverages, or have forbidden them in the past.

[edit] United States

In the United States, there was an attempt from 1920 to 1933 to eliminate the drinking of alcoholic beverages by means of a national prohibition of their manufacture and sale. This period became known as the Prohibition era. During this time, the 18th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States made the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages illegal throughout the United States.

Prohibition led to the unintended consequence of causing widespread disrespect for the law, as many people procured alcoholic beverages from illegal sources. In this way, a lucrative business was created for illegal producers and sellers of alcohol, which led to the development of organized crime. As a result, Prohibition became extremely unpopular, which ultimately led to the repeal of the 18th Amendment in 1933.

Prior to national Prohibition, beginning in the late 19th century, many states and localities had enacted Prohibition within their jurisdictions. After the repeal of the 18th Amendment, some localities (known as dry counties) continued to ban the sale of alcohol.

[edit] Europe

Two Nordic countries (Norway and Finland) also had a period of alcohol prohibition in the early 20th century. This was the result of social democratic campaigning. Prohibition did not have popular support, and it resulted in large-scale smuggling. Following the end of prohibition, state alcohol monopolies were established with detailed restrictions and high taxes. Some of these restrictions have since been lifted. For example, supermarkets in Finland are allowed to sell only fermented beverages with an alcohol content up to 4.7% ABV, but Alko, the government monopoly, is allowed to sell wine and spirits. This is also the case with the Swedish Systembolaget and the Norwegian Vinmonopolet.

[edit] Other countries

Some Muslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia and Pakistan, prohibit the manufacture and sale of alcoholic drinks because they are forbidden by Islam.

In India, the state of Gujarat has prohibited the sale and consumption of alcohol. In many other Indian states, prohibition laws were in place at different times in the past.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Prohibition of drinking alcohol in public places

Drinking alcohol in public places, such as streets and parks, is against the law in most of the United States and in some European countries, but it is legal in others, such as Germany.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] United States

Most states of the United States ban the drinking of alcoholic beverages in public places (e.g., in the street). Moreover, even when a state (such as Nevada, Louisiana, and Missouri) has no such ban, the vast majority of its cities and counties do have it.

But in the French Quarter of New Orleans, in the Power & Light District of Kansas City, Missouri, on Beale Street in Memphis, Tennessee, and in Savannah, Georgia, state law specifically allows persons over the age of 21 to possess alcoholic beverages in plastic cups on the street.

[edit] Other countries

In the United Kingdom and the Netherlands, drinking in public places is not banned by national law, but many cities and towns prohibit possession of an open container of an alcoholic beverage in a public place.

Japan allows open containers in some public areas, such as certain streets and trains, and allows alcoholic beverages to be sold from vending machines, which shut down at a specific time of night. Public drunkenness is not an issue in Japan.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Age restrictions

Most countries have a legal drinking age that prohibits the sale of alcoholic beverages to minors. The age at which this prohibition ends, as well as the degree to which it is enforced, varies significantly from country to country.

[edit] Argentina

In Argentina, the minimum age for buying alcohol is 18 years. It is illegal for anyone to sell alcoholic beverages to people under this age.^[11] However, there is no minimum age for its consumption.

[edit] Australia

In Australia, the minimum age for buying alcohol (but not necessarily for its consumption) is 18 years. In New South Wales and Queensland, it is illegal for anyone to supply alcohol to a person under the age of 18. In Victoria, persons of any age may drink alcohol on private property.

[edit] Canada

In Canada, the legal drinking age is 18 years in the provinces of Alberta, Manitoba, and Quebec, and 19 years in the other provinces.^[1]

[edit] Europe

Laws covering the legal drinking age and the sale of alcoholic beverages in Europe vary from country to country, both in terms of legal drinking age and the age for legally buying alcohol.

The legal drinking age in Europe is usually 16 to 18 years. Some countries have a tiered structure restricting the sale of stronger alcoholic drinks (typically based upon the percentage of ABV) to older adults. For example, in the Netherlands, Germany,^[12] Switzerland, Belgium, and Austria, a purchaser of beer or wine must be 16, and 18 for distilled alcoholic beverages. Germany's law is directed toward sellers of alcoholic beverages, not toward minors. German law vests control of the consumption of alcoholic beverages in the hands of parents and guardians.^[13]

In the United Kingdom, the minimum age for buying alcohol is 18 years, although minors of age 15-16 may drink beer, cider, or wine with a meal if they are accompanied by an adult.^[14] Children may drink in the home from the age of 5 years. Shop workers under 18 may not legally sell alcohol.

In France, the legal age for buying alcohol was increased from 16 to 18 years on July 23, 2009.

In Portugal, people must be at least 16 years of age to buy alcoholic beverages. The same is true in Italy, where 16 is the legal age to buy alcohol and to work in a public place where alcohol is sold. While the minimum age in Italy for drinking alcohol is 14 years, it must be noted that this law is rarely enforced. In Italy, a license is required only for those establishments dedicated to serving alcohol to the public, as in a bar. But the sale of alcoholic beverages is not restricted, and they are commonly sold in grocery stores and supermarkets, where no proof of age is demanded from the buyer.

In Ireland, the Czech Republic, and Poland the legal drinking age is 18.

[edit] Hong Kong

In Hong Kong, the legal age to buy, possess, and drink alcohol is 18 years.

[edit] India

In India, the legal age for buying and drinking alcohol is 18 to 25 years, depending on the state.^[1] Drinking alcohol in public is forbidden.

Generally, bars and pubs in India display signs which state that entry is allowed only for persons who are of the legal age, but the law is seldom obeyed — as evidenced by the number of birthday parties held by teenagers in these establishments.

[edit] Japan

In Japan, the legal age for buying and drinking alcohol is 20 years.

[edit] Korea

The legal drinking age is 19 years in Korea. However, it is generally acceptable to drink after graduation from high school, even though high school graduates are usually 18.

[edit] Nordic countries

In the Nordic countries (except for Denmark), the legal drinking age is 18 years, but these rights are limited up to the age of 20.

In Iceland and Sweden, purchasers and possessors of alcoholic beverages must be 20 years of age, although 18- and 19-year-olds are allowed to drink alcohol.

In Finland and Norway, the purchase and possession of alcoholic beverages that have up to 22% ABV is allowed from age 18, and for stronger drinks from age 20. In Finland and Sweden (but not in Norway), drinks stronger than 22% ABV may be ordered in a restaurant from age 18.

Also, in Sweden, 18-year-olds can legally buy alcoholic beverages that are sold in grocery stores but not those that are sold in the state-run stores.

[edit] United States

The legal age for buying and possessing (but not necessarily for drinking) has been 21 years in every state since shortly after the passage of the National Minimum Drinking Age Act in 1984, which tied federal highway funds to states' maintaining a minimum drinking age of 21.

Seventeen states (Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Florida, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Missouri, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Mexico, New York, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Wyoming) and the District of Columbia have laws against possession of alcohol by minors, but they do not prohibit its consumption by minors.

Thirteen states (Alaska, Colorado, Delaware, Illinois, Louisiana, Maine, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Ohio, Oregon, Texas, and Wisconsin) specifically permit minors to drink alcohol given to them by their parents or by someone entrusted by their parents.^{[citation needed]}

Many states also permit the drinking of alcohol under the age of 21 for religious or health reasons.

United States customs laws stipulate that no person under the age of 21 may bring any type or quantity of alcohol into the country.^[15]

[edit] Restrictions on production

In most countries, the production of alcoholic beverages requires a license from the government, and this production is taxed.

[edit] New Zealand

New Zealand is one of the few countries where it is legal to produce any form of alcohol for personal use, including spirits. The beverages produced are neither licensed nor taxed. This situation has made the use of home distillation equipment quite popular.

[edit] United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, the Customs and Excise department issues distilling licenses.

[edit] United States

The production of distilled beverages is regulated and taxed.^[16] The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives and the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (formerly a single organization called the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms) enforce federal laws and regulations related to alcohol. The illegal (i.e., unlicensed) manufacture of liquor is often referred to as "moonshining." Illegally produced liquor (popularly called “white lightning”) is not aged and contains a high percentage of alcohol.

All packaging of alcoholic products must contain a health warning from the Surgeon General.

In most states, individuals may produce wine and beer for personal consumption (but not for sale) in amounts [usually] of up to 100 gallons per adult per year, but no more than 200 gallons per household per year.

[edit] Restrictions on sale and possession

[edit] Canada

In most Canadian provinces, there is a government monopoly on the sale of alcohol, for example the Liquor Control Board of Ontario, or Liquor Distribution Branch of British Columbia. The idea of government control and supervision of the sale of alcohol was a compromise devised in the 1920s between "drys" and "wets" to end Prohibition in Canada. Some provinces have moved away from government control: in Alberta privately-owned liquor stores exist, while in Quebec a limited number of wines and liquors can be purchased at dépanneurs and grocery stores.

At the same time Canada has some of the highest excise taxes on alcohol in the world, referred to as a "sin tax", this is a source of income for governments and is also meant to discourage over-consumption. (see Taxation in Canada).

Other restrictions on the sale of alcohol vary from province to province. In Alberta, changes introduced in 2008 included a ban on "happy hour", minimum prices, and a limit on the number of drinks a person can purchase at one time after 1 a.m. in bars and pubs.^[17]

[edit] Nordic countries

In each of the Nordic countries, except Denmark, the government has a monopoly on the sale of liquor.

The state-run vendor is called Systembolaget in Sweden, Vinmonopolet in Norway, Alko in Finland, Vínbúð in Iceland, and Rúsdrekkasøla Landsins in the Faroe Islands. The first such monopoly was in Falun in the 19th century.

The governments claim that the purpose of these monopolies is to reduce the consumption of alcohol in these countries, where binge drinking is an ancient tradition. These measures have had success in the past, but since joining the European Union it has been difficult to curb the importation of liquor, legal or illegal, from other EU countries. That has made these laws less effective. There is an ongoing debate over whether to retain these state-run monopolies.

[edit] Denmark

Denmark forbids alcoholic beverages (above 1.2% ABV) to be sold to people under the age of 16 years.^[18] People can buy all kinds of alcoholic beverages from grocery stores. The legal age of purchasing alcohol is 16 in shops, and 18 in bars and restaurants.

It is generally legal to drink alcoholic beverages in the street, but you have to be at least 18 years old.^{[citation needed]} Additional restrictions are sometimes applied by local authorities in problem areas. On public transportation, it is generally allowed to drink alcohol, but not to act heavily intoxicated.

Home production of wine and beer is not regulated. Home distillation of spirits is legal but not common because it is subject to the same tax as spirits sold commercially. Danish alcohol taxes are significantly lower than in Sweden and Norway, but higher than in most other European countries.

[edit] Norway

In Norway, beers with an alcohol content of 4.74% by volume or less can be legally sold in grocery stores. Stronger beers, wine and spirits can only be bought at official government-run vendors. All alcoholic beverages can be bought at licensed bars and restaurants, provided they are consumed on the premises. Beers and wine can be purchased by anyone of age 18 or older, spirits by anyone 20 or over. Norway levies some of the heaviest fees in the world on alcoholic beverages, particularly spirits, on top of a 25% GST on all goods and services. For example, 700 ml of Absolut Vodka currently retails at 275 NOK, which is about US$54.

[edit] Sweden

In the early 20th century, Sweden had a brief prohibition of strong alcoholic drinks, followed by strict rationing, and then by relatively lax regulation, including being open on Saturdays.

In Sweden, beer with a lower alcohol content, called folköl (2.25% to 3.5% alcohol by weight), can be sold in regular stores to anyone older than 18, but drinks with a high alcohol content can only be sold by government-run vendors to people older than 20, or in licensed facilities such as restaurants and bars, where the age limit is 18. The law states that alcoholic drinks bought at these licensed facilities must be consumed on the premises, and it is not allowed to consume alcoholic drinks bought elsewhere. For non-alcoholic drinks there is no such legal requirement, but individual facilities may still set their own restrictions.

[edit] United States

See also: Alcohol laws of Kansas, Alcohol laws of Missouri, Alcohol laws of New York, Alcohol laws of Oklahoma

In the United States, the sale of alcoholic beverages is controlled by the individual states, by the counties or parishes within each state, and by local jurisdictions. A county that prohibits the sale of alcohol is known as a dry county. In some states, liquor sales are prohibited on Sunday by a blue law.

The places where alcohol may be sold or possessed, like all other alcohol restrictions, vary from state to state. Some states, like Nevada, Louisiana, Missouri, and Connecticut, have very permissive alcohol laws, whereas other states, like Kansas and Oklahoma, have very strict alcohol laws.

For example, in most of North Carolina, beer and wine may be purchased in retail stores, but distilled spirits are only available at state ABC (Alcohol Beverage Control) stores. In Maryland, distilled spirits are available in liquor stores except in Montomery County, where they are sold only by the county.

Many states require that liquor may be sold only in liquor stores. In nineteen alcoholic beverage control states, the state has a monopoly on the sale of liquor. In Nevada, Missouri, and Louisiana, state law does not specify the locations where alcohol may be sold.

Most states follow a three-tier system where producers cannot sell directly to retailers, but must instead sell to distributors, who in turn sell to retailers. Exceptions often exist for brewpubs (pubs which brew their own beer) and wineries, which are allowed to sell their products directly to consumers. Although all U.S. states have laws against drunk driving (usually defined as driving with at or above 0.08% blood alcohol content), most U.S. states also do not allow open containers of alcohol inside of moving vehicles. The federal Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century of 1999 mandates that if a state does not prohibit open containers of alcohol inside of all moving vehicles, a percentage of its federal highway funds will be transferred instead to alcohol education programs each year. As of November, 2007, only one state (Mississippi) allows drivers to consume alcohol while driving (below the 0.08% limit), and only seven states (Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Mississippi, Missouri, Virginia, and West Virginia) allow passengers to consume alcohol while the vehicle is in motion.

Five U.S. states limit alcohol sales in grocery stores and gas stations to beer at or below 3.2% alcohol: Colorado, Kansas, Minnesota, Oklahoma, and Utah. In these states, stronger beverages are restricted to liquor stores. In Oklahoma, liquor stores may not refrigerate any beverage containing more than 3.2% alcohol. Missouri also has provisions for 3.2% beer, but its permissive alcohol laws (when compared to other states) make this type of beer a rarity.

[edit] Drunk driving laws

Most countries have laws against drunk driving, i.e., driving with a certain concentration of alcohol in the blood or while impaired by alcohol. Punishments for violation include fines, temporary or permanent loss of driver's license, and imprisonment.

The legal threshold of blood alcohol content ranges from 0.0% to 0.08%, according to local law. Similar prohibitions exist for drunk sailing, drunk bicycling, and even drunk rollerblading.

In many places in the United States, it is illegal to have an open container of an alcoholic beverage in the passenger compartment of a vehicle.

[edit] Effects of alcohol on health

Short-term effects of alcohol consumption include intoxication, dehydration, and ultimately alcohol poisoning. Long-term effects of alcohol include changes to metabolism in the liver and brain, and possible addiction (alcoholism).

[edit] Short-term effects

Alcohol intoxication affects the brain, causing slurred speech, clumsiness, and delayed reflexes. Alcohol stimulates insulin production, which speeds up the glucose metabolism and can result in low blood sugar, causing irritability, and possibly death for diabetics; in normal subjects severe alcohol poisoning can also be lethal. A blood alcohol content of 0.45 represents the LD50, or the amount which would prove fatal in 50% of test subjects. This is about six times the level of intoxication (0.08%), but vomiting and/or unconsciousness are triggered much sooner in people with a low tolerance, among whom such high levels are rarely reached unless a large amount of alcohol is consumed very quickly.^[20] However, chronic heavy drinkers' high tolerance may allow some of them to remain conscious at levels above .4%, despite the serious health dangers.

Also, alcohol limits the production of vasopressin (ADH) from the hypothalamus, and the secretion of this hormone from the posterior pituitary gland. This is what causes severe dehydration when heavy amounts of alcohol are consumed. This is what causes the high water concentration in urine and vomit, and the intense thirst that goes along with a hangover.

[edit] Heart disease

One study found that men who drank moderate amounts of alcohol three or more times a week were up to 35% less likely to have a heart attack than non-drinkers, and men who increased their alcohol consumption by one drink a day over the 12 years of the study had a 22% lower risk of heart attack.^[21]

Daily intake of 1 or 2 units of alcohol (a half or full regular size glass of wine) is associated with a lower risk of coronary heart disease in men over 40 and women who have been through the menopause.^[22] However, getting drunk at least once a month puts women at a significantly increased risk of heart attack, negating any of alcohol's potential protective effect.^[23]

Increased longevity is almost entirely the result of lowered coronary heart disease.^[24]

[edit] Dementia

Long-term moderate or short-term excessive (binge) drinking has been linked to dementia; it is estimated that between 10% to 24% of dementia cases are caused by alcohol consumption, with women being at greater risk than men.^[25][26] Alcoholism is associated with a type of alcohol-related dementia called Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, which is caused by a deficiency in thiamine (vitamin B₁).^[27]

The toxic effects of alcohol on the brain are caused by the neurotoxic effects of alcohol, interaction with nutritional deficiencies, and the neurotoxicity of withdrawal.^[28] In rats, extended consumption of alcohol "did not produce anatomic deficits", but the withdrawal was associated with neuronal loss.^[28] Alcohol interferes with the neurotransmitter glutamate, increasing (upregulating) the number of glutamate receptors in the brain. When alcohol intake is reduced, the glutamate receptors become overactive and neurotoxic.^[27] Other effects which could contribute to withdrawal include the facilitation of GABA, upregulation of certain voltage sensitive calcium channels, and dopamine release.^[28]

In people aged 55 and over, daily light to moderate drinking (one to three drinks) was associated with a 42% drop in the probability of developing dementia, and a 70% reduction in risk of vascular dementia.^[29] The researchers suggest alcohol may stimulate the release of acetylcholine in the hippocampus area of the brain.^[29]

[edit] Cancer

Alcohol consumption has been linked with seven different types of cancer: mouth cancer, pharyngeal cancer, oesophageal cancer, laryngeal cancer, breast cancer, bowel cancer and liver cancer.^[30] The risk of developing cancer increases even with a moderate consumption of as little as 3 units of alcohol (one pint of lager or a large glass of wine) a day.^[30] Heavy drinkers are more likely to develop liver cancer due to cirrhosis of the liver.^[30]

A global study found that 3.6% of all cancer cases worldwide are caused by alcohol drinking, resulting in 3.5% of all global cancer deaths.^[31] A U.K. study found that alcohol causes about 6% of cancer deaths in the U.K., killing over 9,000 people a year.^[30]

Women who regularly consume low to moderate amounts of alcohol have an increased risk of cancers of the upper digestive tract, rectum, liver, and breast.^[32][33] For both men and women, consuming two or more drinks daily increases the risk of pancreatic cancer by 22%.^[34]

Red wine contains resveratrol, which has some anti-cancer effects in laboratory cells, however, based on studies done so far, there is no strong evidence that red wine could protect against cancer in humans.^[35]

[edit] Alcoholism

Proclivity to alcoholism is believed to be partially genetic; individuals with such propensity may have a different biochemical response to alcohol, though this is disputed. Alcohol addiction can also lead to malnutrition because it can alter digestion and metabolism of most nutrients. Severe thiamine deficiency is common due to deficiency of folate, riboflavin, vitamin B₆ and selenium and can lead to Korsakoff's syndrome. Muscle cramps, nausea, appetite loss, nerve disorders and depression are some common symptoms. It can also lead to osteoporosis and bone fractures due to vitamin D deficiency (vitamin D helps in calcium absorption).

[edit] Diabetes

Daily consumption of a small amount of pure ethanol by older women may slow or prevent the onset of diabetes by lowering the level of blood glucose.^[36] However, the researchers caution that the study used pure ethanol, and that everyday alcoholic drinks contain additives, including sugar, which would negate the effect.^[36]

People with diabetes should avoid sugary drinks, sweet wines, and liqueurs.^[37]

[edit] Stroke

A study found that lifelong abstainers were 2.36 times more likely to suffer a stroke than those who drank a moderate amount regularly. Heavy drinkers were 2.88 times more likely to suffer a stroke than moderate drinkers.^[38]

[edit] Longevity

Alcohol consumption by the elderly results in increased longevity, almost entirely as a result of lowered coronary heart disease.^[24]

One study found that consumption of 2 units of alcohol (one regular glass of wine) daily by doctors aged 48+ years increased longevity by reducing the risk of death by ischaemic heart disease and respiratory disease.^[39] Deaths where alcohol consumption is known to increase risk accounted for only 5% of the total deaths, but this figure was increased for those who drank more than 2 units of alcohol per day.^[39]

[edit] Mortality rate

A report of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control estimates that medium and high consumption of alcohol led to 75,754 deaths in the USA in 2001. Low consumption has some beneficial effects, so a net 59,180 deaths were attributed to alcohol.^[40]

In the U.K., heavy drinking is blamed for up to 33,000 deaths a year.^[41]

A study in Sweden found that 29% to 44% of "unnatural" deaths (those not caused by illness) were related to alcohol; the causes of death included suicide, falls, traffic injuries, asphyxia, intoxication and murder.^[42]

A global study found that 3.6% of all cancer cases worldwide are caused by alcohol drinking, resulting in 3.5% of all global cancer deaths.^[31] A U.K. study found that alcohol causes about 6% of cancer deaths in the U.K., killing over 9,000 people a year.^[30]

[edit] Alcohol expectations

Alcohol expectations are beliefs and attitudes that people have about the effects they will experience when drinking alcoholic beverages. They are largely beliefs about alcohol's effects on a person’s behaviors, abilities, and emotions. Some people believe that if alcohol expectations can be changed, then alcohol abuse might be reduced.^[43]

The phenomenon of alcohol expectations recognizes that intoxication has real physiological consequences affecting a drinker's perception of space and time, reducing psychomotor skills, disrupting equilibrium, and other effects.^[44] The manner and degree to which alcohol expectations interact with the physiological effects of intoxication, resulting in specific behaviors, is unclear.

If a society believes that intoxication leads to sexual behavior, rowdy behavior, or aggression, then people tend to act that way when intoxicated. But if a society believes that intoxication leads to relaxation and tranquil behavior, then it usually leads to these outcomes. Alcohol expectations vary within a society, so these outcomes are not certain.^[45]

People tend to conform to social expectations, and some societies expect that drinking alcohol will cause disinhibition. However, in societies in which the people do not expect that alcohol will disinhibit, intoxication seldom leads to disinhibition and bad behavior.^[44]

Alcohol expectations can operate in the absence of actual consumption of alcohol. Research in the United States over a period of decades has shown that men tend to become more sexually aroused when they think they have been drinking alcohol, even when they have not been drinking it. Women report feeling more sexually aroused when they falsely believe the beverages they have been drinking contained alcohol — although one measure of their physiological arousal shows that they became less aroused.

Men tend to become more aggressive in laboratory studies in which they are drinking only tonic water but believe that it contains alcohol. They also become less aggressive when they believe they are drinking only tonic water, but are actually drinking tonic water that contains alcohol.^[43]

[edit] Alcohol and religion

Some religions—most notably Islam, Jainism, the Bahá'í Faith, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the Church of Christ, Scientist, the United Pentecostal Church International, Theravada, most Mahayana schools of Buddhism, some Protestant denominations of Christianity, and some sects of Hinduism—forbid, discourage, or restrict the drinking of alcoholic beverages for various reasons.

Many Christian denominations use wine in the Eucharist or Communion and permit alcohol in moderation. Other denominations use unfermented grape juice in Communion and either abstain from alcohol by choice or prohibit it outright.

Judaism uses wine on Shabbat for Kiddush as well as in the Passover ceremony, Purim, and other religious ceremonies. The drinking of alcohol is allowed. Some ancient Jewish texts, e.g., the Talmud, even encourage moderate drinking on holidays (such as Purim) in order to make the occasion more joyous.

Buddhist texts recommend refraining from drugs and alcohol because they may inhibit mindfulness.

Some pagan religions, however, had a completely opposite view of alcohol and drunkenness. They actively promoted them as a means of fostering fertility. Alcohol was believed to increase sexual desire and to make it easier to approach another person for sex. For example, Norse paganism considered alcohol to be the sap of Yggdrasil. Drunkenness was an important fertility rite in this religion.

[edit] History

Alcohol has been used by people around the world, in the standard diet, for hygienic/medical reasons, for its relaxant and euphoric effects, for recreational purposes, for artistic inspiration, as aphrodisiacs, and for other reasons. Some drinks have been invested with symbolic or religious significance suggesting the mystical use of alcohol, e.g. by Greco-Roman religion in the ecstatic rituals of Dionysus (also called Bacchus), god of wine and revelry; in the Christian Eucharist; and on the Jewish Shabbat and festivals (particularly Passover).

[edit] Fermented beverages

Chemical analysis of traces absorbed and preserved in pottery jars from the Neolithic village of Jiahu, in Henan province, Northern China, have revealed that a mixed fermented beverage of rice, honey, and fruit was being produced as early as 9,000 years ago. This is approximately the same time that barley beer and grape wine were beginning to be made in the Middle East. Recipes have been found on clay tablets and art in Mesopotamia that show individuals using straws to drink beer from large vats and pots. The Hindu Ayurvedic texts describe both the beneficent uses of alcoholic beverages and the consequences of intoxication and alcoholic diseases. Most of the peoples in India and China, have continued, throughout, to ferment a portion of their crops and nourish themselves with the alcoholic product. However, devout adherents of Buddhism, which arose in India in the 5th and 6th centuries BC and spread over southern and eastern Asia, abstain to this day, as do devout Hindus and Sikhs. In Mesopotamia and Egypt, the birthplace of beer and wine, Islam is now the predominant religion, and it also prohibits the drinking and even the handling of alcoholic beverages.

Wine was consumed in Classical Greece at breakfast or at symposia, and in the 1st century BC it was part of the diet of most Roman citizens. However, both Greeks and Romans generally consumed diluted wine (with strengths varying from 1 part wine and 1 part water to 1 part wine and 4 parts water). The transformation of water into wine at the wedding at Cana is the first of the miracles attributed to Jesus in the New Testament, and His use of wine in the Last Supper led to it becoming an essential part of the Eucharist rite in most Christian traditions (see Christianity and alcohol).

In Europe during the Middle Ages, beer was consumed by the whole family, thanks to a triple fermentation process—the men had the strongest, then women, then children. A document of the times mentions nuns having an allowance of six pints of ale a day. Cider and pomace wine were also widely available, while grape wine was the prerogative of the higher classes.

By the time the Europeans reached the Americas in the 15th century, several native civilizations had developed alcoholic beverages. According to a post-Conquest Aztec document, consumption of the local "wine" (pulque) was generally restricted to religious ceremonies, but freely allowed to those over 70 years old. The natives of South America manufactured a beer-like product from cassava or maize (cauim, chicha), which had to be chewed before fermentation in order to turn the starch into sugars. This chewing technique was also used in ancient Japan to make sake from rice and other starchy crops.

The medicinal use of alcohol was mentioned in Sumerian and Egyptian texts dated from 2100 BC or earlier. The Hebrew Bible recommends giving alcoholic drinks to those who are dying or depressed, so that they can forget their misery (Proverbs 31:6-7).

[edit] Distilled beverages

Is first recorded in Europe in the mid-12th century, and by the early 14th century it had spread throughout the continent.^[46] It also spread eastward, mainly due to the Mongols, and began in China no later than the 14th century.^{[citation needed]} Paracelsus gave alcohol its modern name, taking it from the Arabic word which means "finely divided", a reference to distillation.

[edit] Alcoholic beverages in American history

In the early 19th century, Americans had inherited a hearty drinking tradition. Many different types of alcoholic beverages were consumed. One reason for this heavy drinking was an overabundance of corn on the western frontier. This overabundance encouraged the widespread production of cheap whiskey. It was at this time that alcoholic beverages became an important part of the American diet. In the mid 1820s, Americans drank seven gallons of alcohol per capita annually.^[47][48]

During the 19th century, Americans drank an abundance of alcohol and drank it in two distinctive ways.

One way was to drink small amounts daily and regularly, usually at home or alone. The other way consisted of communal binges. Groups of people would gather in a public place for elections, court sessions, militia musters, holiday celebrations, or neighborly festivities. Participants would typically drink until they became intoxicated.

[edit] Chemistry and toxicology

It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into ethanol. (Discuss)

It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into alcohol intoxication. (Discuss)

Ethanol (CH₃CH₂OH), the active ingredient in alcoholic drinks, for consumption purposes is always produced by fermentation – the metabolism of carbohydrates - by certain species of yeast in the absence of oxygen. The process of culturing yeast under alcohol-producing conditions is referred to as brewing. The same process produces carbon dioxide in situ, and may be used to carbonate the drink. However, this method leaves yeast residues and on the industrial scale, carbonation is usually done separately.

Drinks with a concentration of more than about 50 percent ethanol by volume (100 US proof) are flammable liquids and easily ignited. Some exotic drinks gain their distinctive flavors through intentional ignition, such as the Flaming Dr Pepper. Spirits with a higher ethanol content can be ignited with ease by heating slightly, e.g. adding the spirit to a warmed shot glass.

In the liver, the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase oxidizes ethanol into acetaldehyde, which is then further oxidized into harmless acetic acid by acetaldehyde dehydrogenase. Ethanol is metabolized into acetaldehyde and then into acetic acid. Acetic acid is esterified with coenzyme A to produce acetyl CoA. Acetyl CoA carries the acetyl moiety into the citric acid cycle, which produces energy by oxidizing the acetyl moiety into carbon dioxide. Acetyl CoA can also be used for biosynthesis. Acetyl CoA is an intermediate common with the metabolism of sugars and fats, and it is the product of glycolysis, the breakdown of glucose.

When compared to other alcohols, ethanol is only slightly toxic, with a lowest known lethal dose in humans of 1400 mg/kg (about 20 shots for a 100 kg person), and a LD₅₀ of 9000 mg/kg (oral, rat). Nevertheless, accidental overdosing of alcoholic drinks, especially those of concentrated variety, is a risk, especially for women, lightweight persons and children. These people have a smaller quantity of water in their bodies, so that alcohol is diluted less. A blood alcohol concentration of 50 to 100 mg/dL may be considered legal drunkenness (laws vary by jurisdiction). The threshold of effects is at 22 mg/dL.^[49]

Alcohol affects the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors, to produce a depressant (neurochemical inhibitory) effect. Alcohol is similar to other sedative-hypnotics such as barbiturates and benzodiazepines both in its effect on the GABA_A receptor although its pharmacological profile is not identical. It has anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, hypnotic and sedative actions similar to many other sedative-hypnotic drugs. Alcohol is also cross-tolerant with benzodiazepines and barbiturates.^[50]

Excessive consumption of alcohol leads to a toxication-induced delayed poisoning called hangover (in Latin, crapula refers to intoxication and hangover). Various factors contribute, including the toxication of ethanol itself to acetaldehyde, the direct toxic effects and toxication of impurities called congeners, and dehydration. The hangover starts after the euphoric effects of alcohol itself have subsided, typically in the night and morning after alcoholic drinks were consumed. However, the blood alcohol concentration may still be substantial and above the limits imposed for drivers and operators of other dangerous equipment. The effects of a hangover subside over time. Various treatments to cure hangover have been suggested, many of them pseudoscientific.

In chemistry, alcohol is a general term for any organic compound in which a hydroxyl group (-OH) is bound to a carbon atom, which in turn may be bound to other carbon atoms and further hydrogens. Other alcohols such as propylene glycol and the sugar alcohols may appear in food or beverages regularly, but these alcohols do not make them "alcoholic". Methanol (one carbon), the propanols (three carbons giving two isomers), and the butanols (four carbons, four isomers) are all commonly found alcohols, and none of these three should ever be consumed in any form. Alcohols are toxicated into the corresponding aldehydes and then into the corresponding carboxylic acids. These metabolic products cause a poisoning and acidosis. In the case of other alcohols than ethanol, the aldehydes and carboxylic acids are poisonous and the acidosis can be lethal. In contrast, fatalities from ethanol are mainly found in extreme doses and related to induction of unconsciousness or chronic addiction (alcoholism).

[edit] The raw materials of alcoholic beverages

The names of some beverages are determined by the source of the material fermented. In general, a beverage fermented from a starch-heavy source (grain or potato), in which the starch must first be broken down into sugars (by malting, for example), will be called a beer; if the mash is distilled, the end product is a spirit. Wine is made from fermented grapes.

Brandy and wine are made only from grapes. If an alcoholic beverage is made from another kind of fruit, it is distinguished as fruit brandy or fruit wine. The variety of fruit must be specified, as (for example) "cherry brandy" or "plum wine".

In the USA and Canada, cider often means unfermented apple juice (see the article on cider), while fermented cider is called hard cider. Unfermented cider is sometimes called sweet cider. In the UK, cider refers to the alcoholic drink; in Australia the term is ambiguous.

Beer is generally made from barley, but can sometimes contain a mix of other grains. Whisky (or whiskey) is sometimes made from a blend of different grains, especially Irish whiskey which may contain several different grains. The style of whisk(e)y (Scotch, rye, Bourbon, corn) generally determines the primary grain used, with additional grains usually added to the blend (most often barley, and sometimes oats). As far as American whiskey is concerned, Bourbon (corn), and rye whiskey, must be at least 51% of respective constituent at fermentation, while corn whiskey (as opposed to Bourbon) must be at least 81%—all by American law similar to the French A.O.C (Appellation d'Origine Controlée).

Two common distilled beverages are vodka and gin. Vodka can be distilled from any source of agricultural origin (grain and potatoes being the most common), but the main characteristic of vodka is that it is so thoroughly distilled as to exhibit less of the flavors derived from its source material. Some distillers and experts, however, may disagree, arguing that potato vodkas display a creamy mouthfeel, while rye vodkas will have heavy nuances of rye. Other vodkas may display citrus notes. Gin is a similar distillate which has been flavored by contact with herbs and other plant products—especially juniper berries, but also including angel root, licorice, cardamom, grains of paradise, Bulgarian rose petals, and many others.

Applejack is an example of a drink originally made by freeze distillation, which is easy to do in cold climates. Although both distillation and freeze distillation reduce the water content, they are not equivalent, because freeze distillation concentrates poisonous higher alcohols rather than reducing them like distillation.

[edit] Ingredients

[edit] Grains

Source	Name of fermented beverage	Name of distilled beverage
barley	beer, ale, barley wine	Scotch whisky, Irish whiskey, shōchū (mugijōchū) (Japan)
rye	rye beer, kvass	rye whiskey, vodka (Poland), roggenkorn (Germany)
corn	chicha, corn beer, tesguino	Bourbon whiskey; and vodka (rarely)
sorghum	burukutu (Nigeria), pito (Ghana), merisa (southern Sudan), bilibili (Chad, Central African Republic, Cameroon)	maotai, gaoliang, certain other types of baijiu (China).
wheat	wheat beer	vodka, wheat whisky, weizenkorn (Germany)
rice	Beer, brem (Bali), huangjiu and choujiu (China), Ruou gao (Vietnam), sake (Japan), sonti (India), makgeolli (Korea), tuak (Borneo Island), thwon (Nepal)	aila (Nepal), rice baijiu (China), shōchū (komejōchū) and awamori (Japan), soju (Korea)
millet	millet beer (Sub-Saharan Africa), tongba (Nepal, Tibet)
buckwheat		shōchū (sobajōchū) (Japan)

[edit] Juice of fruits

Source	Name of fermented beverage	Name of distilled beverage
juice of grapes,	wine	brandy, Cognac (France), Vermouth, Armagnac (France), Branntwein (Germany), pisco (Chile and Peru), Rakia (The Balkans, Turkey), singani (Bolivia), Arak (Syria, Lebanon, Jordan), törkölypálinka (Hungary)
juice of apples	cider (U.S.: "hard cider"), apfelwein	applejack (or apple brandy), calvados, cider
juice of pears	perry, or pear cider; poiré (France)	Poire Williams, pear brandy, Eau-de-vie (France), pálinka (Hungary)
juice of plums	plum wine	slivovitz, tzuica, palinca, umeshu, pálinka
juice of pineapples	tepache (Mexico)
bananas or plantains	Chuoi hot (Vietnam), urgwagwa (Uganda, Rwanda), mbege (with millet malt; Tanzania), kasikisi (with sorghum malt; Democratic Republic of the Congo)
gouqi	gouqi jiu (China)	gouqi jiu (China)
coconut	Toddy (Sri Lanka)	arrack, lambanog (Sri Lanka, India, Philippines)
ginger with sugar, ginger with raisins	ginger ale, ginger beer, ginger wine
Myrica rubra	yangmei jiu (China)	yangmei jiu (China)
pomace	pomace wine	Raki/Ouzo/Pastis/Sambuca (Turkey/Greece/France/Italy), tsipouro/tsikoudia (Greece), grappa (Italy), Trester (Germany), marc (France), zivania (Cyprus), aguardente (Portugal), tescovină (Romania), Arak (Iraq)

[edit] Vegetables

Source	Name of fermented beverage	Name of distilled beverage
juice of ginger root	ginger beer (Botswana)
potatoes or grain	potato beer	vodka: Potatoes are mostly used in Poland and Germany, otherwise grain or potatoes. A strong drink called akvavit, popular in Scandinavia, is made from potatoes or grain. In Ireland, poitín (or poteen) is a traditional liquor made from potatoes, which was illegal from 1661 to 1997.
sweet potato		shōchū (imojōchū) (Japan), soju (Korea)
cassava/manioc/yuca	nihamanchi (South America), kasiri (Sub-Saharan Africa), chicha (Ecuador)
juice of sugarcane, or molasses	basi, betsa-betsa (regional)	rum (Caribbean), pinga or cachaça (Brasil), aguardiente, guaro
juice of agave	pulque	tequila, mezcal, raicilla

Other

Source	Name of fermented beverage	Name of distilled beverage
sap of palm	coyol wine (Central America), tembo (Sub-Saharan Africa), toddy (Indian subcontinent)
sap of Arenga pinnata, Coconut, Borassus flabellifer	Tuak (Indonesia)	Arak
honey	mead, tej (Ethiopia)	distilled mead (mead brandy or honey brandy)
milk	kumis, kefir, blaand
sugar	kilju and mead or sima (Finland)	shōchū (kokutō shōchū): made from brown sugar (Japan)

[edit] See also

v • d • e Alcohol and health Conditions Short-term effects of alcohol/Alcohol intoxication · Long-term effects of alcohol · Fetal alcohol syndrome/Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder · Alcoholism · Binge drinking digestive system Alcoholic hepatitis · Alcoholic liver disease nervous system Alcohol dementia · Alcoholic hallucinosis · Blackout (alcohol-related amnesia) · Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome cardiovascular system Alcoholic cardiomyopathy · Alcoholic lung disease Interactions Aging · Breast cancer · Cancer · Cardiovascular disease · Family systems · Sex · Sleep · Weight Other Recommended maximum intake · Wine and health · French Paradox · Blood alcohol content

[edit] References

[edit] External links

Look up prohibition in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Look up faux in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Look up alcoholic beverage in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Alcoholic beverages

Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on Alcoholic Drink

• BBC Headroom: Drinking too much?
• International Center for Alcohol Policies
• National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism - What Is a Standard Drink?

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