Peru

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This article is about the country. For other uses, see Peru (disambiguation).
Republic of Peru
República del Perú  (Spanish)
Perú Suyu  (Quechua)
Piruw Suyu  (Aymara)
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: "Himno Nacional del Perú"  (Spanish)
"National Anthem of Peru"
National seal:
Gran Sello del Estado Gran Sello de la República del Perú.svg
(Spanish)
"Great Seal of the State"
Capital
(and largest city)		 Lima
12°2.6′S 77°1.7′W / 12.0433°S 77.0283°W / -12.0433; -77.0283
Official language(s) Spanish1
Ethnic groups  45% Amerindian, 37% Mestizo, 15% European, 3% African, Asian[1]
Demonym Peruvian
Government Presidential republic
 -  President Alan García
 -  Vice President Luis Giampietri
 -  Prime Minister Javier Velásquez
 -  President of Congress César Zumaeta
Independence from Spain 
 -  Declared July 28, 1821 
 -  Consolidated December 9, 1824 
 -  Recognized August 14, 1879 
Area
 -  Total 1,285,216 km2 (20th)
496,225 sq mi 
 -  Water (%) 8.8
Population
 -  30 June 2010 estimate 29,461,933[2] 
 -  2007 census 28,220,764 
 -  Density 23/km2 (191st)
57/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2010 estimate
 -  Total $269.142 billion[3] 
 -  Per capita $9,107[3] 
GDP (nominal) 2010 estimate
 -  Total $146.280 billion[3] 
 -  Per capita $4,949[3] 
Gini (2008) ▼ 47.9 (high) 
HDI (2007) ▲0.806 (high) (78th)
Currency Nuevo Sol (PEN)
Time zone PET (UTC-5)
 -  Summer (DST) not observed (UTC)
Drives on the right
Internet TLD .pe
Calling code +51
1 Quechua, Aymara and other indigenous languages are co-official in the areas where they are predominant.

Peru (pronounced /pəˈrʊ/ ( listen); Spanish: Perú, Quechua: Perú[4], Aymara: Piruw), officially the Republic of Peru (Spanish: República del Perú, pronounced [reˈpuβlika ðel peˈɾu]  ( listen)), is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean.

Peruvian territory was home to the Norte Chico civilization, one of the oldest in the world, and to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty, which included most of its South American colonies. After achieving independence in 1821, Peru has undergone periods of political unrest and fiscal crisis as well as periods of stability and economic upswing.

Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. Its geography varies from the arid plains of the Pacific coast to the peaks of the Andes mountains and the tropical forests of the Amazon Basin. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score and a poverty level around 34%. Its main economic activities include agriculture, fishing, mining, and manufacturing (e.g. textiles).

The Peruvian population, estimated at 29.5 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans, and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music.

Contents

[edit] Etymology

José de San Martín's proclamation of Peru's independence on July 28, 1821.

The word Peru is derived from Birú, the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama, in the early 16th century.[5] When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans.[6] Thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Peru.[7] The Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru.[8] Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, which became Republic of Peru after the Peruvian War of Independence.

[edit] History

Main article: History of Peru

The earliest evidence of human presence in Peruvian territory has been dated to approximately 10,560 BCE.[9] The oldest known complex society in Peru and the Americas, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3000 and 1800 BCE.[10] These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures such as Cupisnique, Chavin, Paracas, Mochica, Nazca, Wari, and Chimú. In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.[11] Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important.

Machu Picchu, the "Lost City of the Incas," voted one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.

In the years between 1524 and 1526 smallpox, introduced from Panama and preceding the Spanish conquerors swept through the Inca Empire.[12] The death of the Incan ruler Huayna Capac as well as most of his family including his heir, caused the fall of the Incan political structure and contributed to the civil war between the brothers Atahualpa and Huáscar.[13]

In 1532, a group of conquistadors and Native Americans led by Francisco Pizarro defeated and captured Inca Emperor Ata-wallpa. Francisco Pizarro demanded gold and silver in exchange for the release of the Sapa Inca, and although Francisco Pizarro received a room of gold and the two following rooms with silver, up to the level of the reach of Ata-wallpa's arm, Ata-wallpa was executed and Francisco Pizarro conquered the Empire and imposed Spanish rule. Ten years later, the Spanish Crown established the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included all of its South American colonies.[14] Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country in the 1570s with silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian forced labor as its primary workforce.[15]

Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines.[16] However, by the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income.[17] In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms, a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty of Peru.[18] The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were defeated.[19]

In the early 19th century, while most of South America was swept by wars of independence, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite hesitated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy, independence was achieved only after the military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar.[20] During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.[21] National identity was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation foundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral.[22] Between the 1840s and 1860s, Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla through increased state revenues from guano exports.[23] However, by the 1870s, these resources had been squandered, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.[24]

Historic Centre of Arequipa, Peru's second largest city, founded in 1540, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Peru was defeated by Chile in the 1879–1883 War of the Pacific, losing the provinces of Arica and Tarapacá in the treaties of Ancón and Lima. During the Chilean occupation of Lima, Chilean military authorities turned the University of San Marcos and the recently inaugurated Palacio de la Exposición into barracks, raided medical schools and other educational institutions, plundered the contents of the Peruvian National Library and transported thousands of books (including many centuries-old original volumes) along with much capital stock to Santiago de Chile, and carried away a series of monuments and artwork that had adorned the city.[25] Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party, which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía.[26] The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA).[27] The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades.[28]

In 1968, the Armed Forces, led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado, staged a coup against president Fernando Belaunde. The new regime undertook radical reforms aimed at fostering development but failed to gain widespread support.[29] In 1975, Velasco was forcefully replaced as president by General Francisco Morales Bermúdez, who paralyzed reforms and oversaw the reestablishment of democracy.[30]

During the 1980s, Peru faced a considerable external debt, ever-growing inflation, a surge in drug trafficking, and massive political violence.[31] Some 70,000 people died during the conflict between state forces and Maoist Shining Path guerrillas.[32] Under the presidency of Alberto Fujimori (1990–2000), the country started to recover; however, accusations of authoritarianism, corruption, and human rights violations forced his resignation after the controversial 2000 elections.[33] Since the end of the Fujimori regime, Peru has tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth; since 2006 the president is Alan García.[34]

[edit] Government

Main articles: Government of Peru and Politics of Peru
Historic Centre of Lima, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and center of power of the Peruvian government since 1535.

Peru is a presidential representative democratic republic with a multi-party system. Under the current constitution, the President is the head of state and government; he or she is elected for five years and cannot seek immediate re-election, he or she must stand down for at least one full constitutional term before reelection.[35] The President designates the Prime Minister and, with his advice, the rest of the Council of Ministers.[36] There is a unicameral Congress with 120 members elected for a five-year term.[37] Bills may be proposed by either the executive or the legislative branch; they become law after being passed by Congress and promulgated by the President.[38] The judiciary is nominally independent,[39] though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history and arguably continues today.[40]

The Peruvian government is directly elected, and voting is compulsory for all citizens aged 18 to 70.[41] General elections held in 2006 ended in a second round victory for presidential candidate Alan García of the Peruvian Aprista Party (52.6% of valid votes) over Ollanta Humala of Union for Peru (47.4%).[42] Congress is currently composed of the Peruvian Aprista Party (36 seats), Peruvian Nationalist Party (23 seats), Union for Peru (19 seats), National Unity (15 seats), the Fujimorista Alliance for the Future (13 seats), the Parliamentary Alliance (9 seats) and the Democratic Special Parliamentary Group (5 seats).[43]

The Peruvian government is closely allied with the Catholic Church. Article 50 of the Constitution recognizes the Catholic Church's role as "an important element in the historical, cultural, and moral development of the nation." [44] Catholic clergy and laypersons receive state remuneration in addition to the stipends paid to them by the Church. This applies to the country's 52 bishops, as well as to some priests whose ministries are located in towns and villages along the borders. In addition each diocese receives a monthly institutional subsidy from the Government. An agreement signed with the Vatican in 1980 grants the Catholic Church special status in Peru.[45] The Catholic Church receives preferential treatment in education, tax benefits, immigration of religious workers, and other areas, in accordance with the agreement.

Peruvian foreign relations have been dominated by border conflicts with neighboring countries, most of which were settled during the 20th century.[46] There is still an ongoing dispute with Chile over maritime limits in the Pacific Ocean.[47] Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international organizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations. The Peruvian military is composed of an army, a navy and an air force; its primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.[48] The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defense and to the President as Commander-in-Chief. Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service.[49]

[edit] Regions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Peru
info
Clickable map of the regions of Peru.

Peru is divided into 25 regions and the province of Lima. Each region has an elected government composed of a president and a council, which serves for a four-year term.[50] These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.[51] The province of Lima is administered by a city council.[52]

Regions:

Province:

[edit] Geography

Main article: Geography of Peru

Peru covers 1,285,216 km2 (496,225 sq mi). It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west.

The Andes mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean, dividing the country into three geographic regions. The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow plain, largely arid except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán.[53] The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60% of the country's area is located within this region,[54] (70,000,000 hectares / 172,973,767 acres or 700,000 km2/270,272 sq mi) giving Peru the fourth largest area of tropical forest in the world after Brazil, Congo and Indonesia.[55]

Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of three basins. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River are longer, have a much larger flow, and are less steep once they exit the sierra. Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.[56] Peru's longest rivers are the Ucayali, the Marañón, the Putumayo, the Yavarí, the Huallaga, the Urubamba, the Mantaro, and the Amazon.[57]

Alpamayo.jpgManu riverbank.jpg
Left: Alpamayo mountain peak in the Huascarán National Park UNESCO World Heritage Site in central Peru's Ancash.
Right: Manú National Park, a biosphere reserve in Cuzco and the Madre de Dios Region, here depicts a part of Peru's Amazon Rainforest.

Peru, unlike other equatorial countries, does not have an exclusively tropical climate; the influence of the Andes and the Humboldt Current cause great climatic diversity within the country. The costa has moderate temperatures, low precipitations, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.[58] In the sierra, rain is frequent during summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.[59] The selva is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.[60] Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003; 5,855 of them endemic.[61] The Peruvian government has established several protected areas for their preservation.

[edit] Economy

Main article: Economy of Peru
Callao.jpgSanisidrolimaperu.jpg
Left: The seaport of Callao is the main outlet for Peruvian exports.
Right: Buildings in the financial district of San Isidro, Lima.

The economy of Peru is a market-oriented one and the 42nd largest in the world. The country has experienced significant economic growth in the last 15 years. Peru is considered an Emerging Market, according to the MSCI, due to political and macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising investment and consumption.[62] The economy is diversified although commodity exports are still the most important. Trade and industries are centralized in Lima but agricultural exports have created development in all the regions. As of 2010, GDP per capita in ppp values is almost US$10,000.[3] Peru has a high Human Development Index score of 0.806, according to a 2008 report. The World Bank defines Peru as an 'Upper Middle Income Economy'[63]

Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades. The 1968–1975 government of Juan Velasco Alvarado introduced radical reforms, which included agrarian reform, the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of an economic planning system, and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of income redistribution and the end of economic dependence on developed nations.[64]

Despite these adverse results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the liberalizing government of Alberto Fujimori ended price controls, protectionism, restrictions on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of companies.[65] Reforms have permitted sustained economic growth since 1993, except for a slump after the 1997 Asian financial crisis.[66]

Services account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by manufacturing (22.3%), extractive industries (15%), and taxes (9.7%).[67] Recent economic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising investment and consumption.[68] Trade is expected to increase further after the implementation of a free trade agreement with the United States signed on April 12, 2006.[69] Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments.[70] Although exports have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive.[71] Peru's main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.[72]

[edit] Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Peru and Indigenous peoples in Peru
Peruvian Olympic delegation, wearing traditional coastal garment, depicts the nation's multicultural society.

With about 29.5 million inhabitants, Peru is the fourth most populous country in South America.[73] Its demographic growth rate declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; population is expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.[74] As of 2007, 75.9% lived in urban areas and 24.1% in rural areas.[75] Major cities include Lima, home to over 8 million people, Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Cusco, Chimbote, and Huancayo, all of which reported more than 250,000 inhabitants in the 2007 census.[76] In the Amazonian region, there are 16 ethno-linguistic families and more than 65 different ethnic groups.[77] After Brazil and New Guinea, Peru has the largest number of uncontacted tribes in the world.[78]

Inca Garcilaso de la Vega.pngUrarina shaman B Dean.jpgAndean Man.jpgSan Martin de Porres huaycan.jpg
Left: Famous mestizo writer and historian Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, popularly known as the "First biological and spiritual mestizo of America."
Center-Left: Urarina Shaman from the Peruvian Amazon Rainforest.
Center-Right: Andean man from Pisac in traditional dress.
Right: Saint Martín of Porres, the first black saint of the Americas and patron of universal peace.

Peru is a multiethnic country formed by the combination of different groups over five centuries. Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before Spanish Conquest in the 16th century; their population decreased from an estimated 9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620. The cause of most of the population decrease was directly due to infectious diseases, which was aggravated by various factors, chief among them being the indigenous population's lack of natural immunity as well as the repercussions of colonialism.[79] The laws made to protect the indigenous people are not always respected by the Peruvian government or the companies, such as Perenco, Repsol YPF, and Petrobras,[80] who seek to explore the natural resources of their land.[81] In 1994, Peru signed and ratified the current international law concerning indigenous peoples, the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989.[82] Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and with indigenous peoples. After independence, there has been a gradual European immigration from England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain.[83] Chinese arrived in the 1850s as a replacement for slave workers and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society.[84] Other immigrant groups include Arabs and Japanese. Given Peru's high rate of ethnic intermixing, the country's racial structure can be loosely classified as 31%[85][86]-45% Amerindian, 37% Mestizo (mixed Amerindian and European), 15% European, and 3% African, Japanese, Chinese, and others.[1]

Spanish, the first language of 83.9% of Peruvians aged five and older in 2007, is the primary language of the country. It coexists with several indigenous languages, the most important of which is Quechua, spoken by 13.2% of the population. Other native and foreign languages were spoken at that time by 2.7% and 0.1% of Peruvians, respectively.[87] In the 2007 census, 81.3% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic, 12.5% as Evangelical, 3.3% as of other denominations, and 2.9% as non-religious.[88] Although the Constitution states that there is freedom of religion, the law mandates that all schools, public and private, impart religious education as part of the curriculum throughout the education process (primary and secondary).[89] Catholicism is the only religion taught in public schools. In addition, Catholic religious symbols are found in all government buildings and public places.

[edit] Education and Health

Literacy was estimated at 92.9% in 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%).[90] Primary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools.[91] Schools in rural areas are associated with less average knowledge of pupils.[92] There is a correlation of malnutrition and low achievement at school.[92] Income shows a positive correlation with education.[92]

In health care, discrimination against indigenous peoples exists.[93] Peru has one of the highest maternal death rates of the Americas.[93] In the 1996-2006 period, infant mortality was at 21 per 1,000 births.[94]

[edit] Culture

Main article: Culture of Peru
Anonymous Cuzco School painting, 18th century

Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish traditions,[95] though it has also been influenced by various African, Asian, and European ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architectural achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by native traditions.[96] During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cuzco School are representative.[97] Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century.[98] Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.[99]

Peruvian literature has its roots in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression included chronicles and religious literature. After independence, Costumbrism and Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma.[100] In the early 20th century, the Indigenismo movement produced such writers as Ciro Alegría,[101] José María Arguedas,[102] and César Vallejo.[103] During the second half of the century, Peruvian literature became more widely known because of authors such as Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin American Boom.[104]

Ceviche is a lime marinated seafood dish.

Peruvian cuisine is based on a fusion of Indigenous and Spanish food, particularly in coastal Peru. In Lima, there have also been minor influences from African, Chinese, and Japanese immigrants (who make up less than three percent of the population and live mostly in Lima).[105] These cuisines have been heavily adapted due to a lack of authentic ingredients many of which are either commercially unavailable or prohibitively expensive. For example, although there are numerous Chinese restaurants throughout Lima, none of them serve authentic Chinese cuisine. Instead they serve a fusion cuisine known as Chifa. Common dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, humitas, and pachamanca. Because of the variety of climates within Peru, a range of plants and animals is available for cooking.[106]

Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish and African roots.[107] In pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely from region to region; the quena and the tinya were two common instruments.[108] Spanish conquest brought the introduction of new instruments such as the guitar and the harp, as well as the development of crossbred instruments like the charango.[109] African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the cajón, a percussion instrument.[110] Peruvian folk dances include marinera, tondero, danza de tijeras, huayno and diablada.[111]

[edit] International rankings

Organization Survey Ranking
Institute for Economics and Peace [2] Global Peace Index[112] 79 out of 144
United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index 78 out of 182
Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 75 out of 180
World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 78 out of 133

[edit] See also


[edit] Notes

  1. ^ a b Peru (10/08), U.S. Department of State
  2. ^ "Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática (INEI) del Perú". INEI. Retrieved on June 10, 2010.
  3. ^ a b c d e "Peru". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=293&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=59&pr.y=9. Retrieved 2010-04-21. 
  4. ^ Quechua name used by government of Peru is Perú, see Quechua language version of Peru Parliament website and Quechua language version of Peru Constitution [1]
  5. ^ Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 83.
  6. ^ Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 84.
  7. ^ Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 86.
  8. ^ Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 87.
  9. ^ Lynch, Thomas F, R. Gillespie, John A. J. Gowlett, and R. E. M. Hedges. "Chronology of Guitarrero Cave, Peru." Science. August 1985 (retrieved 23 Feb 2010)
  10. ^ Jonathan Haas et al, "Dating the Late Archaic occupation of the Norte Chico region in Peru", p. 1021.
  11. ^ Terence D'Altroy, The Incas, pp. 2–3.
  12. ^ Cowley, Geoffrey. "The Great Disease Migration." Newsweek (Special Issue, Fall/Winter 1991) pp. 54-56
  13. ^ Hemming, John. The Conquest of the Inca. New York, NY: Harcourt, Inc., 1970, 28-29.
  14. ^ Recopilación de leyes de los Reynos de las Indias, vol. II, pp. 12–13.
  15. ^ Peter Bakewell, Miners of the Red Mountain, p. 181.
  16. ^ Margarita Suárez, Desafíos transatlánticos, pp. 252–253.
  17. ^ Kenneth Andrien, Crisis and decline, pp. 200–202.
  18. ^ Mark Burkholder, From impotence to authority, pp. 83–87.
  19. ^ Scarlett O'Phelan, Rebellions and revolts in eighteenth century Peru and Upper Peru, p. 276.
  20. ^ Timothy Anna, The fall of the royal government in Peru, pp. 237–238.
  21. ^ Charles Walker, Smoldering ashes, pp. 124–125.
  22. ^ Paul Gootenberg, Between silver and guano, p. 12.
  23. ^ Paul Gootenberg, Imagining development, pp. 5–6.
  24. ^ Paul Gootenberg, Imagining development, p. 9.
  25. ^ Hugh Chisholm. "Lima". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://books.google.com/books?id=OvYtAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA690&lpg=PA690&dq=Chile+destroyed+Lima&source=web&ots=NYWbeGRm5E&sig=fqU3QDhDg_ClzJ37DR5XIHV9uBI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result. Retrieved 2008-12-04. 
  26. ^ Ulrich Mücke, Political culture in nineteenth-century Peru, pp. 193–194.
  27. ^ Peter Klarén, Peru, pp. 262–276.
  28. ^ David Palmer, Peru: the authoritarian tradition, p. 93.
  29. ^ George Philip, The rise and fall of the Peruvian military radicals, pp. 163–165.
  30. ^ Daniel Schydlowsky and Juan Julio Wicht, "Anatomy of an economic failure", pp. 106–107.
  31. ^ Peter Klarén, Peru, pp. 406–407.
  32. ^ Peru's Fujimori gets 25 years prison for massacres. Reuters. April 8, 2009.
  33. ^ BBC News, Fujimori: Decline and fall. Retrieved on July 21, 2007.
  34. ^ The Economist, Peru. Retrieved on July 18, 2007.
  35. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 112.
  36. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 122.
  37. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 90.
  38. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Articles N° 107–108.
  39. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Articles N° 146.
  40. ^ Jeffrey Clark, Building on quicksand. Retrieved on July 24, 2007.
  41. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 31.
  42. ^ (Spanish) Oficina Nacional de Procesos Electorales, Segunda Elección Presidencial 2006. Retrieved on May 15, 2007. Archived March 9, 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
  43. ^ (Spanish) Congreso de la República del Perú, Grupos Parlamentarios. Retrieved on January 5, 2008.
  44. ^ International Religious Freedom Report 2007; Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor; Published by U.S. State Department. Page 15
  45. ^ Kevin Boyle and Juliet Sheen, Freedom of religion and belief: a world report. Routledge; 1997. Page 144.
  46. ^ Ronald Bruce St John, The foreign policy of Peru, pp. 223–224.
  47. ^ BBC News, Peru–Chile border row escalates. Retrieved on May 16, 2007.
  48. ^ Ministerio de Defensa, Libro Blanco de la Defensa Nacional, p. 90.
  49. ^ Ley N° 27178, Ley del Servicio Militar, Articles N° 29, 42 and 45.
  50. ^ Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article N° 11.
  51. ^ Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article N° 10.
  52. ^ Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article N° 66.
  53. ^ AndesHandbook, Huascarán. Retrieved on August 12, 2007.
  54. ^ Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, p. 16.
  55. ^ Painter, James (December 7, 2008). "Peru aims for zero deforestation". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7768226.stm. 
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  57. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005, p. 21.
  58. ^ Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, pp. 24–25.
  59. ^ Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, pp. 25–26.
  60. ^ Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, pp. 26–27.
  61. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005, p. 50.
  62. ^ MSCI Barra
  63. ^ United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Reports 2008 Statistical Update. Retrieved on April 28, 2009.
  64. ^ Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru 1890–1977, pp. 318–319.
  65. ^ John Sheahan, Searching for a better society, p. 157.
  66. ^ (Spanish) Banco Central de Reserva, Producto bruto interno por sectores productivos 1951–2006. Retrieved on May 15, 2007. Archived June 9, 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
  67. ^ 2006 figures. (Spanish) Banco Central de Reserva, Memoria 2006, p. 204. Retrieved on June 25, 2007. Archived June 19, 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
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  69. ^ Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, United States and Peru Sign Trade Promotion Agreement, April 4, 2006. Retrieved on May 15, 2007. Archived September 28, 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
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  73. ^ United Nations, World Population ProspectsPDF (2.74 MB), pp. 44–48. Retrieved on July 29, 2007
  74. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050, pp. 37–38, 40.
  75. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú, p. 13.
  76. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú, p. 24.
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  79. ^ Noble David Cook, Demographic collapse: Indian Peru, 1520–1620, p. 114.
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  82. ^ "ILOLEX: submits English query". Ilo.org. 2004-01-09. http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/ratifce.pl?C169. Retrieved 2010-06-26. 
  83. ^ Mario Vázquez, "Immigration and mestizaje in nineteenth-century Peru", pp. 79–81.
  84. ^ Magnus Mörner, Race mixture in the history of Latin America, p. 131.
  85. ^ (Spanish) / Conclusiones del presidente de la Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación (pag.4)
  86. ^ (Spanish) / Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación
  87. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú, p. 111.
  88. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú, p. 132.
  89. ^ Michael Fleet and Brian H. SmithThe Catholic Church and democracy in Chile and Peru. University of Notre Dame Press; 1997. Page 201-202.
  90. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú, p. 93.
  91. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 17.
  92. ^ a b c http://www.crise.ox.ac.uk/pubs/workingpaper48.pdf
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  97. ^ Gauvin Alexander Bailey, Art of colonial Latin America, p. 263.
  98. ^ Edward Lucie-Smith, Latin American art of the 20th century, pp. 76–77, 145–146.
  99. ^ Damián Bayón, "Art, c. 1920–c. 1980", pp. 425–428.
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  103. ^ Jaime Concha, "Poetry, c. 1920–1950", pp. 250–253.
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  107. ^ Raúl Romero, "Andean Peru", p. 385–386.
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[edit] References

Etymology
  • (Spanish) Porras Barrenechea, Raúl. El nombre del Perú. Lima: Talleres Gráficos P.L. Villanueva, 1968.
History
  • Andrien, Kenneth. Crisis and decline: the Viceroyalty of Peru in the seventeenth century. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1985.
  • Anna, Timothy. The fall of the royal government in Peru. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979.
  • Bakewell, Peter. Miners of the Red Mountain: Indian labor in Potosi 1545–1650. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 1984.
  • BBC News. Fujimori: Decline and fall. November 20, 2000.
  • Burkholder, Mark. From impotence to authority: the Spanish Crown and the American audiencias, 1687–1808. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1977.
  • D'Altroy, Terence. The Incas. Malden: Blackwell, 2002.
  • Dillehay, Tom, Duccio Bonavia and Peter Kaulicke. "The first settlers". In Helaine Silverman (ed.), Andean archaeology. Malden: Blackwell, 2004, pp. 16–34.
  • Gootenberg, Paul. Between silver and guano: commercial policy and the state in postindependence Peru. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991.
  • Gootenberg, Paul. Imagining development: economic ideas in Peru's "fictitious prosperity" of Guano, 1840–1880. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
  • Haas, Jonathan, Winifred Creamer and Alvaro Ruiz. "Dating the Late Archaic occupation of the Norte Chico region in Peru". Nature 432: 1020–1023 (December 23, 2004).
  • Klarén, Peter. Peru: society and nationhood in the Andes. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
  • Mayer, Enrique. The articulated peasant: household economies in the Andes. Boulder: Westview, 2002
  • Mücke, Ulrich. Political culture in nineteenth-century Peru. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004.
  • O'Phelan, Scarlett. Rebellions and revolts in eighteenth century Peru and Upper Peru. Cologne: Böhlau, 1985.
  • Palmer, David. Peru: the authoritarian tradition. New York: Praeger, 1980.
  • Philip, George. The rise and fall of the Peruvian military radicals. London: University of London, 1978.
  • (Spanish) Recopilación de leyes de los Reynos de las Indias. Madrid: Cultura Hispánica, 1973
  • Schydlowsky, Daniel and Juan Julio Wicht. "Anatomy of an economic failure". In Cynthia McClintock and Abraham Lowenthal (ed.), The Peruvian experiment reconsidered. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983, pp. 94–143.
  • (Spanish) Suárez, Margarita. Desafíos transatlánticos. Lima: FCE/IFEA/PUCP, 2001.
  • The Economist. Peru. June 12, 2007.
  • Walker, Charles. Smoldering ashes: Cuzco and the creation of Republican Peru, 1780–1840. Durham: Duke University Press, 1999.
Government
Regions
Geography
  • AndesHandbook. Huascarán. June 2, 2002.
  • (Spanish) Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú. El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico. Lima: Auge, 1996.
  • (Spanish) Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005PDF (8.31 MB). Lima: INEI, 2005.
Flora and Fauna
Economy
  • (Spanish) Banco Central de Reserva. Cuadros Anuales Históricos.
  • (Spanish) Banco Central de Reserva. Memoria 2006. Lima: BCR, 2007.
  • (Spanish) Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. Nota de prensaPDF (35.7 KB). Lima: INEI, 2009.
  • International Monetary Fund. Peru. January 2010.
  • Office of the U.S. Trade Representative. United States and Peru Sign Trade Promotion Agreement. April 4, 2006.
  • Sheahan, John. Searching for a better society: the Peruvian economy from 1950. University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999.
  • Thorp, Rosemary and Geoffrey Bertram. Peru 1890–1977: growth and policy in an open economy. New York: Columbia University Press, 1978.
  • United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Indices: A statistical update 2008. New York: UNDP, 2008.
Demographics
  • Cook, Noble David. Demographic collapse: Indian Peru, 1520–1620. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
  • (Spanish) Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050. Lima: INEI, 2001.
  • (Spanish) Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú. Lima: INEI, 2008.
  • Mörner, Magnus. Race mixture in the history of Latin America. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1967.
  • United Nations. World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision. HighlightsPDF (2.74 MB). New York: United Nations, 2007.
  • Vázquez, Mario. "Immigration and mestizaje in nineteenth-century Peru". In: Magnus Mörner, Race and class in Latin America. New York: Columbia University Press, 1970, pp. 73–95.
Culture
  • Bailey, Gauvin Alexander. Art of colonial Latin America. London: Phaidon, 2005.
  • Bayón, Damián. "Art, c. 1920–c. 1980". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), A cultural history of Latin America. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 393–454.
  • (Spanish) Belaunde, Víctor Andrés. Peruanidad. Lima: BCR, 1983.
  • Concha, Jaime. "Poetry, c. 1920–1950". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), A cultural history of Latin America. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 227–260.
  • Custer, Tony. The Art of Peruvian Cuisine. Lima: Ediciones Ganesha, 2003.
  • Embassy of Peru in the United States. The Peruvian Gastronomy.
  • Lucie-Smith, Edward. Latin American art of the 20th century. London: Thames and Hudson, 1993.
  • Martin, Gerald. "Literature, music and the visual arts, c. 1820–1870". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), A cultural history of Latin America. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 3–45.
  • Martin, Gerald. "Narrative since c. 1920". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), A cultural history of Latin America. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 133–225.
  • Olsen, Dale. Music of El Dorado: the ethnomusicology of ancient South American cultures. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002.
  • (Spanish) Romero, Raúl. "La música tradicional y popular". In: Patronato Popular y Porvenir, La música en el Perú. Lima: Industrial Gráfica, 1985, pp. 215–283.
  • Romero, Raúl. "Andean Peru". In: John Schechter (ed.), Music in Latin American culture: regional tradition. New York: Schirmer Books, 1999, pp. 383–423.
  • Turino, Thomas. "Charango". In: Stanley Sadie (ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. New York: MacMillan Press Limited, 1993, vol. I, p. 340.

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