Republic of Ireland

Ireland[a] Éire
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Amhrán na bhFiann   The Soldier's Song
Location of  Ireland  (green) – on the European continent  (light green & grey) – in the European Union  (light green)  —  [Legend]
Capital (and largest city)		Dublin 53°20.65′N 6°16.05′W / 53.34417°N 6.2675°W / 53.34417; -6.2675
Official language(s)		Irish, English
Ethnic groups		87% Irish 13% Other[1][2]
Demonym		Irish (Éireannaigh)
Government		Constitutional republic Parliamentary democracy
-	President	Mary McAleese
-	Taoiseach	Brian Cowen TD
Legislature		Oireachtas
-	Upper House	Seanad Éireann
-	Lower House	Dáil Éireann
Independence		from the United Kingdom
-	Declared	24 April 1916
-	Ratified	21 January 1919
-	Recognised	6 December 1922
-	Constitution	29 December 1937
-	Became a republic	18 April 1949
EU accession		1 January 1973
Area
-	Total	70,273 km2 (119th) 27,133 sq mi
-	Water (%)	2.00
Population
-	2010 estimate	4,456,000 [3]
-	2006 census	4,239,848 (121st)
-	Density	63.4/km2 (139th) 164.2/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2009 estimate
-	Total	$175.055 billion[4]
-	Per capita	$39,468[4]
GDP (nominal)		2009 estimate
-	Total	$227.781 billion[4]
-	Per capita	$51,356[4]
HDI (2009)		▬ 0.965[5] (very high) (5th)
Currency		Euro (€)[note 1] (EUR)
Time zone		WET (UTC+0)
-	Summer (DST)	IST (WEST) (UTC+1)
Drives on the		left
Internet TLD		.ie[b]
Calling code		353
a. ^ Article 4 of the Constitution of Ireland and Section 2 of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 – the constitutional name of the state is Ireland; the supplementary legal description is the Republic of Ireland, but is deprecated by the state. b. ^ The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states.

Ireland^[6] (pronounced /ˈaɪərlənd/  ( listen), locally [ˈaɾlənd], Irish: Éire, pronounced [ˈeːɾʲə]  ( listen)), described as the Republic of Ireland (Irish: Poblacht na hÉireann),^[7] is a state in northwest Europe. It is a parliamentary democratic constitutional republic. It occupies approximately five-sixths of the island of Ireland, which was partitioned into two jurisdictions in 1921.^[8] It is bordered to the northeast by Northern Ireland, which is a part of the United Kingdom, and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the Irish Sea to the east, St George's Channel to the southeast, and the Celtic Sea to the south. The country has a population of almost 4.5 million people.^[9]

The state, initially the Irish Free State, was established on 6 December 1922 as a dominion within the British Commonwealth as a result of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, which concluded the Irish War of Independence.^{[note 2]} It gained increasing sovereignty through the Statute of Westminster and the abdication crisis of 1936.^{[note 3]} A new constitution introduced in 1937^[10] declared it as an entirely sovereign state named Ireland.^[11] The last formal link with the United Kingdom was severed in 1949 when the Oireachtas (national parliament) passed the Republic of Ireland Act,^[12] which declared Ireland a republic^[13] by removing the remaining duties of the monarch. Consequently, Ireland left the then British Commonwealth, having already ceased to attend Commonwealth meetings since 1937.^[14]

During British rule and initial independence, Ireland was one of the poorest countries in Western Europe and experienced high emigration. But in contrast to many other states in the period, it stayed financially solvent and remained a democracy. The protectionist economy was opened in the late 1950s and in 1973 Ireland joined what is now the European Union. An economic crisis led Ireland to start large-scale economic reforms in the late 1980s which led to widespread emigration. Ireland reduced taxation and regulation dramatically compared to other EU countries.^[15] The rapid growth of the economy during the 1990s saw the beginning of unprecedented economic growth in the phenomenon known as the "Celtic Tiger",^[16] which lasted until the global financial crisis of 2007–2010.

Ireland is ranked as the 38th economic power in the world by the IMF and is one of the world's most developed countries^[17]. In 2006 Ireland had the sixth highest nominal gross domestic product per capita (ninth highest per capita considering purchasing power parity).^[18][19] The country is ranked fifth in the Human Development Index, ranked first in the Economist Intelligence Unit’s quality-of-life index, and ranked sixth on the Global Peace Index. It is also ranked first for press freedom and ranked fourth for economic freedom. The state also has high rankings for its education system, political freedom and civil rights. The country is one of the most sustainable states in the world, ranking fifth from bottom in the Failed States Index. Ireland is also a member of the OECD, the WTO and the UN.

[edit] Etymology

For all official purposes, including international treaties and other legal documents, the name of the country is Ireland for documents written in English and Éire for documents written in Irish. EU institutions follow the same practice. Since Irish became an official language of the Union in 2007, name plates for the state at EU meetings read as Éire - Ireland, which are also used on Irish passports.^{[note 4]} Article 4 of the 1937 Constitution of Ireland states that "The name of the State is Éire, or, in the English language, Ireland." The wording of this article has been criticised in a report by the Constitution Review Group in 1996, stating that the wording was "unnecessarily complicated and that it should be simplified". An amendment was recommended to state that, "The name of the state is Ireland", with an equivalent change in the Irish text. The Constitution Review Group also considered whether the article should be amended to include "Republic of" in the name. It is satisfied that the legislative provision, which declared the description of the State to be the "Republic of Ireland", is sufficient."^[20]

The Republic of Ireland Act 1948 provided that the description of the state be the "Republic of Ireland" (Poblacht na hÉireann).^[7] The Act was to change Ireland to a republic by removing the last official functions of the British monarch and transferring these to the elected president. No change of name took place as a result of that act. In 1989 the Irish Supreme Court rejected an extradition warrant that used the name Republic of Ireland. Justice Walsh ruled that, "if the courts of other countries seeking the assistance of this country are unwilling to give this State its constitutionally correct and internationally recognised name, then in my view, the warrants should be returned to such countries until they have been rectified."^[21]

The island of Ireland was unilaterally proclaimed an independent republic by rebels in 1916 and called the Irish Republic (Poblacht na hÉireann). Following the 1918 general election, that proclamation was ratified by Irish members of parliament. Between 1921 and 1922, the British government legislated to establish Ireland as an autonomous region of the United Kingdom, creating Southern Ireland (and Northern Ireland). Following the Anglo-Irish Treaty, the state was established as an independent dominion in the British Commonwealth, styled the Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann). All of these names are still sometimes used unofficially. Other colloquial names, such the twenty-six counties and the South are also often used, particularly among residents of Northern Ireland. Likewise, from the perspective of the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland is often called the six counties or the North.

[edit] History

Charles Stewart Parnell

[edit] Home-rule movement

From the Act of Union on 1 January 1801 until 6 December 1922, all of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. During the Great Famine, from 1845 to 1849, the island's population of over 8 million fell by 30%. One million Irish died of starvation and another 1.5 million emigrated.^[22] This set the pattern of emigration for the century to come, resulting in a constant decline up to the 1960s.

From 1874, particularly under Charles Stewart Parnell from 1880, the Irish Parliamentary Party moved to prominence through widespread agrarian agitation, via the Irish Land League, that won improved tenant land reforms in the form of the Irish Land Acts, and with its attempts to achieve Home Rule, via two unsuccessful Bills which would have granted Ireland limited national autonomy. These led to the “grass-roots” control of national affairs under the Local Government Act 1898 previously in the hands of landlord-dominated grand juries of the Protestant Ascendancy.

Home Rule seemed certain when the Parliament Act 1911 abolished the veto of the House of Lords, and John Redmond secured the Third Home Rule Act 1914. However, the Unionist movement had been growing since 1886 among Irish Protestants after the introduction of the first home rule bill, fearing that they would face discrimination and lose economic and social privileges if Irish Catholics were to achieve real political power. Though Irish unionism existed throughout the whole of Ireland, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century unionism was particularly strong in parts of Ulster, where industrialisation was more common in contrast to the more agrarian rest of the island. It was feared that any tariff barriers would heavily affect that region. In addition, the Protestant population was more prominent in Ulster, with unionist majorities existing in four counties.

Under the leadership of the Dublin-born Sir Edward Carson of the Irish Unionist Party and the northerner Sir James Craig of the Ulster Unionist Party, unionists became strongly militant in order to oppose the Coercion of Ulster. After the Home Rule Bill passed parliament in May 1914, to avoid rebellion with Ulster, the British Prime Minister H. H. Asquith introduced an Amending Bill reluctantly conceded to by the Irish Party leadership, providing for the temporary exclusion of Ulster from the workings of the bill for a trial period of six years, with an as yet undecided new set of measures to be introduced for the area to be temporarily excluded.

[edit] Revolution

With the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922, a new parliament called the Oireachtas was established, of which Dáil Éireann became the lower house.

Though it received the Royal Assent and was placed on the statute books in 1914, the implementation of the Third Home Rule Act was suspended until after the Great War. For the prior reasons of ensuring the implementation of the Act at the end of the war, Redmond and his Irish National Volunteers supported the Allied cause, and 175,000 joined Irish regiments of the 10th (Irish), 16th (Irish), while Unionists joined the 36th (Ulster) divisions of the New British Army.^[23] In January 1919, after the December 1918 general election, 73 of Ireland's 106 MPs elected were Sinn Féin members who refused to take their seats in the British House of Commons. Instead, they set up an Irish parliament called Dáil Éireann. This Dáil in January 1919 issued a Declaration of Independence and proclaimed an Irish Republic. The Declaration was mainly a restatement of the 1916 Proclamation with the additional provision that Ireland was no longer a part of the United Kingdom. The new Irish Republic was recognised internationally only by the Russian Soviet Republic.^[24] The Republic's Aireacht (ministry) sent a delegation under Ceann Comhairle Seán T. O'Kelly to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, but it was not admitted.

After the War of Independence and truce called in July 1921, representatives of the British government and the Irish treaty delegates, led by Arthur Griffith, Robert Barton and Michael Collins, negotiated the Anglo-Irish Treaty in London from 11 October to 6 December 1921. The Irish delegates set up headquarters at Hans Place in Knightsbridge and it was here in private discussions that the decision was taken on 5 December to recommend the Treaty to Dáil Éireann. The Second Dáil Éireann narrowly ratified the Treaty.

In accordance with the Treaty, on 6 December 1922 the entire island of Ireland became a self-governing British dominion called the Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann). Under the Constitution of the Irish Free State, the Parliament of Northern Ireland had the option to leave the Irish Free State exactly one month later and return to the United Kingdom. During the intervening period, the powers of the Parliament of the Irish Free State and Executive Council of the Irish Free State did not extend to Northern Ireland. Northern Ireland exercised its right under the Treaty to opt out of the new dominion and rejoined the United Kingdom on 8 December 1922. It did so by making an Address to the King requesting, "that the powers of the Parliament and Government of the Irish Free State shall no longer extend to Northern Ireland."^[25] However, the Irish Free State was a constitutional monarchy over which the British monarch reigned. It had a Governor-General, a bicameral parliament, a cabinet called the "Executive Council" and a prime minister called the President of the Executive Council.

Éamon de Valera, a dominant figure in 20th century Ireland.

[edit] Irish Civil War

The Irish Civil War was the consequence of the creation of the Irish Free State. Anti-Treaty forces, led by Éamon de Valera, objected to the fact that acceptance of the Treaty abolished the Irish Republic of 1919 to which they had sworn loyalty, arguing in the face of public support for the settlement that the "people have no right to do wrong". They objected most to the fact that the state would remain part of the British Commonwealth and that members of the Free State Parliament would have to swear, what the Anti-Treaty side saw as, an oath of fidelity to the British King. Pro-Treaty forces, led by Michael Collins, argued that the Treaty gave "not the ultimate freedom that all nations aspire to and develop, but the freedom to achieve it".

At the start of the war, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) split into two opposing camps: a pro-treaty IRA and an anti-treaty IRA. The pro-Treaty IRA disbanded and joined the new Irish Army. However, through the lack of an effective command structure in the anti-Treaty IRA, and their defensive tactics throughout the war, Collins and his pro-treaty forces were able to build up an army with many tens of thousands of WWI veterans from the 1922 disbanded Irish regiments of the British Army, capable of overwhelming the anti-Treatyists. British supplies of artillery, aircraft, machine-guns and ammunition boosted pro-treaty forces, and the threat of a return of Crown forces to the Free State removed any doubts about the necessity of enforcing the treaty. The lack of public support for the anti-treaty forces (often called the Irregulars) and the determination of the government to overcome the Irregulars contributed significantly to their defeat.

In the Northern Ireland question, Irish governments started to seek a peaceful reunification of Ireland and have usually cooperated with the British government in the violent conflict involving many paramilitaries and the British Army in Northern Ireland known as "The Troubles". A peace settlement for Northern Ireland, the Belfast Agreement, was approved in 1998 in referendums north and south of the border. As part of the peace settlement, Ireland dropped its territorial claim to Northern Ireland. The peace settlement is currently being implemented.

[edit] 1937 Constitution

On 29 December 1937, a new constitution, the Constitution of Ireland (Bunreacht na hÉireann), came into force. It replaced the Constitution of the Irish Free State and called the state Ireland, or Éire in Irish.^[11] The former Irish Free State government had taken steps to formally abolish the Office of Governor-General some months before the new Constitution came into force.^[26] Although the Constitution of Ireland established the office of President of Ireland, between 1937 and 1949 Ireland was not technically a republic. This was because the principal key role possessed by a head of state, that of symbolically representing Ireland internationally remained vested under statutory law, in the British king as an organ of the Irish government. The King's title in the Irish Free State was exactly the same as it was elsewhere in the British Empire:

• 1922-1927 – By the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India.
• 1927–1937 – By the Grace of God, of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India.

Ireland remained neutral during World War II, a period it described as The Emergency. The position of King ceased with the passage of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948, which came into force on 18 April 1949 when the office of President of Ireland replaced that of the King. The Act declared that the state could be described as a republic. Later, the Crown of Ireland Act was formally repealed in Ireland by the Statute Law Revision (Pre-Union Irish Statutes) Act, 1962.

Ireland was technically a member of the British Commonwealth after independence until the declaration of a republic on 18 April 1949. Under the Commonwealth rules at the time, a declaration of a republic automatically terminated membership of the Commonwealth. This rule was changed 10 days after Ireland declared itself a republic, with the London Declaration of 28 April 1949. Ireland therefore immediately ceased to be a member and did not reapply for membership when the Commonwealth changed its rules to allow republics to join.

[edit] Recent history

Ireland joined the European Economic Community in 1973, along with the United Kingdom and Denmark.

Ireland became a member of the United Nations in December 1955, after previously being denied membership due to its neutral stance during the Second World War and not supporting the Allied cause.^[27] At that time, joining the United Nations involved a commitment to using force to deter aggression by one state against another if the UN thought it was necessary.^[28]

The European Economic Community (now the European Union) was established in 1957 with the objective of achieving economic and political unity among its members. There had been widespread interest in Ireland during the 1950s towards membership of such an organisation. Some consideration was also given to the possibility of seeking associate status with the EEC and membership of the European Free Trade Area was also suggested. Realising that the United Kingdom intended to apply for membership of the European Economic Community, Ireland, due to the substantial economic linkages with the United Kingdom, also applied to join the Community as a full member on 31 July 1961. However, the founding six EEC countries expressed doubts about Ireland's economic capacity and neutrality. The country's policy of protectionism, which saw restrictions imposed on imports, wasn’t appealing to a European community.^[29]

Irish economists campaigned for a change in economic policy and many politicians accepted that it was the only way to solve the unemployment and emigration issues. The prospect for EEC membership was doubtful in 1963 when the French President, General Charles de Gaulle, stated that France did not want Britain to join the community. This brought an end to negotiations with all applicant countries. However, in 1969 his successor, George Pompidou, did not oppose British and Irish membership. Negotiations began and in 1972 the Treaty of Accession was signed. A referendum held in 1972 confirmed Ireland’s entry, with 83 per cent of voters supporting membership.^[30] The state finally succeeded in joining the EEC in 1973.

The economic crisis of the late 1970s was a difficult time for Ireland, with Fianna Fáil's budget, the abolition of the car tax, borrowing to fund spending, and global economic trouble being the cause. Power alternated between the Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael parties, with some governments lasting short periods. Starting in 1989 there were significant policy changes with economic reform, tax cuts, welfare reform, an increase in competition, and a ban on borrowing to fund current spending. This policy was started by the 1989–1992 Fianna Fáil/Progressive Democrat government, with the support of the opposition Fine Gael, and continued by the subsequent Fianna Fáil/Labour government and Fine Gael/Labour/Democratic Left governments. The state became one of the fastest growing economies in the world by the 1990s in what is known as the Celtic Tiger period, which lasted until the financial crisis of 2007–2010.

[edit] Government

[edit] Politics

President Mary McAleese

Ireland is a constitutional republic with a parliamentary system of government. The President of Ireland serves as head of state, and is elected for a seven-year term and can be re-elected only once. The president is largely a figurehead, but is entrusted with certain constitutional powers and functions, aided by an advisory body, the Council of State. The Taoiseach (prime minister) is appointed by the president on his election by the lower house of the parliament. Most Taoisigh have been the leader of the political party which wins the most seats in the national elections. It has become normal for coalitions to form a government, and there has not been a single-party government since 1989.

Government Buildings

The Oireachtas, which is a bicameral parliament, consists of the President of Ireland, Seanad Éireann (Senate), being the upper House, and Dáil Éireann (House of Representatives), being the lower House.^[31] The Seanad is composed of sixty members, with eleven nominated by the Taoiseach, six elected by two universities, and 43 elected by public representatives from panels of candidates established on a vocational basis. The Dáil has 166 members (Teachtaí Dála) elected to represent multi-seat constituencies under the system of proportional representation by means of the Single Transferable Vote. Under the constitution, parliamentary elections must be held at least every seven years, though a lower limit may be set by statute law. The current statutory maximum term is five years.

Leinster House (Seat of the Oireachtas)

The Government is constitutionally limited to fifteen members. No more than two members of the Government can be selected from the Seanad, and the Taoiseach, Tánaiste (deputy prime minister) and Minister for Finance must be members of the Dáil. The current government consists of a coalition of two parties; Fianna Fáil under Taoiseach Brian Cowen and the Green Party under leader John Gormley, along with numerous independents. The last general election to the Dáil took place on 24 May 2007, after it was called by the Taoiseach on 29 April. The opposition parties in the current Dáil are Fine Gael under Enda Kenny, the Labour Party under Eamon Gilmore, and Sinn Féin led by Caoimhghín Ó Caoláin. A number of independent deputies also sit in Dáil Éireann.

Ireland is a European Union member and has chosen to remain outside the Schengen Area. Citizens of the United Kingdom can freely enter the country without a passport due to the Common Travel Area. The Common Travel Area is a passport-free zone that comprises the islands of Ireland, Great Britain, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. However, some form of identification is required at airports and seaports.

Ireland's current European Commissioner is Máire Geoghegan-Quinn, who was allocated the Research, Innovation and Science portfolio.^[32] The portfolio is responsible primarily for research and improving the conditions in the EU for researchers.

[edit] Administration

Ireland consists of twenty-six traditional counties which are still used in cultural and sporting contexts, but not always coterminous with administrative divisions. Several traditional counties have been restructured into new administrative divisions. County Tipperary was divided into two in the 1890s and County Dublin was divided into three in the 1990s, giving a present-day total of twenty-nine administrative counties and five cities. The five cities of Dublin, Cork, Limerick, Galway, and Waterford are administered separately from the remainder of their respective counties. Five boroughs of Clonmel, Drogheda, Kilkenny, Sligo, and Wexford have a level of autonomy within their counties.^[33] While Kilkenny is a borough, it is has retained the legal right to be referred to as a city.^[34] Dáil constituencies are required by statute to follow county boundaries as much as possible. Hence counties with greater populations have multiple constituencies, some of more than one county, but generally do not cross county boundaries. The counties are grouped into eight regions for statistical purposes.

1 Dublin 14 Kilkenny 2 Wicklow 15 Waterford 3 Wexford 16 Cork 4 Carlow 17 Kerry 5 Kildare 18 Limerick 6 Meath 19 Tipperary 7 Louth 20 Clare 8 Monaghan 21 Galway 9 Cavan 22 Mayo 10 Longford 23 Roscommon 11 Westmeath 24 Sligo 12 Offaly 25 Leitrim 13 Laois 26 Donegal

Cities Population (2006) Dublin 1,045,769 Cork 190,384 Limerick 90,757 Galway 72,729 Waterford 49,213 Provinces Population (2006)      Leinster 2,295,123      Munster 1,173,340      Connacht 504,121       Ulster (part of) 267,264

The Minister for the Environment, Heritage and Local Government has responsibility for local authorities and related services. Local government is governed by the Local Government Acts, the most recent of which (Local Government Act 2001) established a two-tier structure of local government. The Local Government Act 1898 is the founding document of the present system of local government. The Twentieth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland (1999) provided for constitutional recognition of local government for the first time in Ireland. Local government bodies are responsible for such matters as planning, local roads, sanitation, and libraries.

The top tier of the structure consists of 29 county councils and five city councils. Twenty-four of the 26 traditional counties have had county councils since 1898. County Tipperary has had two (North Tipperary and South Tipperary), and since 1994 the traditional County Dublin has had three (Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown, Fingal, and South Dublin). The five cities of Dublin, Cork, Limerick, Waterford, and Galway have city councils, which have the same status as county councils. The second tier consists of town councils. The city of Kilkenny and four towns which had borough corporation status before 2001 (Sligo, Drogheda, Clonmel, and Wexford), are allowed to use the title of "Borough Council" instead of "Town Council", but have no additional responsibilities. There are 75 town councils in addition to these five borough councils. Outside the towns, the county councils are solely responsible for local services.

[edit] Justice

Criminal Court of Justice in Dublin.

Ireland has a common law legal system with a written constitution that provides for a parliamentary democracy. The court system consist of the Supreme Court, the Court of Criminal Appeal, the High Court, the Circuit Court and the District Court, all of which apply the laws of Ireland. Trials for serious offences must usually be held before a jury. The High Court and the Supreme Court have authority, by means of judicial review, to determine the compatibility of laws and activities of other institutions of the state with the constitution and the law. Except in exceptional circumstances, court hearings must occur in public. The Criminal Court of Justice is the principal building for the criminal courts.^[35][36] It includes the District Court Court of Criminal Appeal, Dublin Circuit Criminal Court and Central Criminal Court.^[35]

The state's civilian police force, Garda Síochána na hÉireann (Guardians of the Peace of Ireland), is responsible for all aspects of civil policing, both in terms of territory and infrastructure. The service is headed by the Garda Commissioner who is appointed by the Irish Government. Its headquarters are located in the Phoenix Park in Dublin. Most uniformed members of An Garda Síochána do not routinely carry firearms. It is tradition that standard policing should be carried out in both rural and urban areas by uniformed officers equipped only with a baton.

The Póilíní Airm (Military Police) is the corps of the Irish Army responsible for the provision of policing service personnel and providing a military police presence to forces while on exercise and deployment. In wartime, additional tasks include the provision of a traffic control organisation to allow rapid movement of military formations to their mission areas. Other wartime roles include control of prisoners of war and refugees.^[37] They have a close working relationship with An Garda Síochána at national and local levels.

[edit] Foreign relations

U.S. ambassador's residence in Dublin.

The foreign relations of Ireland are substantially influenced by its membership of the European Union, although bilateral relations with the United States and United Kingdom are also important. Ireland is consistently the most pro-European of EU member states according to a Eurobarometer poll in 2010, with 66% of the population approving membership compared to an EU average of 49%.^[38] In May 2004, Ireland was one of only three countries to open its borders to workers from the 10 new member states. The country has held the Presidency of the Council of the European Union on six occasions and is scheduled to hold the presidency again in 2013.^[39]

Ireland tends towards independence in foreign policy, thus it is not a member of NATO and has a longstanding policy of military neutrality. This policy has helped the Irish Defence Forces to be successful in their contributions to UN peace-keeping missions since 1960 (in the Congo Crisis) and subsequently in Cyprus, Lebanon and Bosnia and Herzegovina.^[40]

Ireland's air facilities were used by the U.S. military for the delivery of military personnel involved in the 2003 invasion of Iraq through Shannon Airport; previously the airport had been used for the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, as well as the First Gulf War.^[41] This is part of a longer history of use of Shannon for controversial military transport, under Irish military policy which, while ostensibly neutral, was biased towards NATO during the Cold War.^[42] During the Cuban Missile Crisis, Seán Lemass authorised the search of Cuban and Czechoslovak aircraft passing through Shannon and passed the information to the CIA.^[43] During the World War II, although officially neutral, Ireland supplied similar, though more extensive, support for the Allied Forces (see Irish neutrality during World War II). Since 1999, Ireland has been a member of NATO's Partnership for Peace program.^[44][45]

[edit] Military

Irish Army Mowag Piranha AFV at 2006 Easter Military Parade in Dublin.

Ireland's military is organised as the Irish Defence Forces (Óglaigh na hÉireann). The Irish Army is small compared to other armies in the region, but is well equipped, with 8,500 full-time military personnel (9,292 in the reserve army).^[46] This is mainly due to Ireland's policy of neutrality,^[47] and its "triple-lock" rules governing participation in conflicts whereby approval must be given by the UN, the Government and the Dáil before any Irish troops are deployed into a conflict zone.^[48] Deployments of Irish soldiers cover UN peace-keeping duties, protection of Ireland's territorial waters (Irish Naval Service) and Aid to Civil Power operations in the state. Over 40,000 Irish servicemen have served in UN peacekeeping missions around the world. The Irish Air Corps is extremely limited in size and capabilities, possessing only seven light attack aircraft, eight attack helicopters, and 14 other auxiliary, patrol, and transport aircraft. The Irish Naval Service is the maritime branch of the military, and also has very limited capabilities. It has eight offshore patrol vessels, and smaller numbers of inflatable boats and training vessels, and has highly trained and armed boarding parties capable of seizing a ship and a special unit of frogmen. Although the Naval Service has no heavy warships, all Irish vessels have significant firepower. The military includes the Reserve Defence Forces (Irish Army Reserve and Naval Service Reserve) for non-active reservists. The Irish Army Rangers is a special forces branch which operates under the aegis of the army.

[edit] Citizenship

Ireland's citizenship laws relate to "the island of Ireland" (incl. islands and seas), thereby extending them to Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom. Therefore, anyone born in Northern Ireland who meets the requirements for being an Irish citizen, such as birth on the island of Ireland to an Irish or British citizen parent or a parent who is entitled to live in Northern Ireland or the Republic without restriction on their residency,^[49] may exercise an entitlement to Irish citizenship, such as an Irish passport.^[50]

[edit] Geography

[edit] Landscape

Cliffs of Moher on the west coast.

The country belongs to a group of islands in northwest Europe which include the islands of Great Britain and Ireland, and over six thousand smaller islands. The island of Ireland extends over 84,421 km² (32,595 sq mi), of which approximately five-sixths belongs to the Republic of Ireland (70,280 km²/27,135 sq mi) and the remainder constitutes Northern Ireland. It is bounded to the north and west by the Atlantic Ocean, and to the northeast by the North Channel. To the east coast is the Irish Sea, which reconnects to the ocean via the southwest with St George's Channel and the Celtic Sea. The west coast of Ireland mostly consists of cliffs, hills and low mountains. The highest point in the country is Carrauntoohil at 1,038 m or 3,406 ft, which situated in the Macgillycuddy's Reeks mountain range.

The interior of the country is relatively flat land, traversed by rivers such as the River Shannon and several large lakes or loughs. The large central lowlands consist of limestone covered with glacial deposits of clay and sand. It is part of the River Shannon watershed, containing large areas of bogland used for peat extraction and production. Ireland also has off-shore deposits of oil and gas.^[51] Main urban areas include Dublin on the east coast, Cork in the south, Limerick in the mid-west, Galway on the west coast, and Waterford on the south east coast.

Pasture in County Cork.

[edit] Agricultural impact

Agriculture and food is an important industry in Ireland, with about 64% of the total land area used for agriculture.^[52] The long history of agricultural production coupled with modern agricultural methods (such as pesticide and fertiliser use) has placed pressure on biodiversity in Ireland. Agriculture is the main factor determining land use patterns in Ireland, leaving limited land to preserve natural habitats (also forestry and urban development to a lesser extent),^[53] in particular for larger wild mammals with greater territorial requirements.

With no top predator in Ireland, populations of animals that cannot be controlled by smaller predators (such as the fox) are controlled by annual culling, i.e. semi-wild populations of deer. A land of green fields for crop cultivation and cattle rearing limits the space available for the establishment of native wild species. Hedgerows, however, traditionally used for maintaining and demarcating land boundaries, act as a refuge for native wild flora. Their ecosystems stretch across the countryside and act as a network of connections to preserve remnants of the ecosystem that once covered the island.

Pollution from agricultural activities is one of the principal sources of environmental damage. Runoff of contaminants into streams, rivers and lakes impacts the natural fresh-water ecosystems.^[54] Subsidies under the Common Agricultural Policy which supported these agricultural practices and contributed to land-use distortions are undergoing reforms.^[55] The CAP still subsidises some potentially destructive agricultural practices, however, recent reforms have introduced environmental requirements.^[55]

Forest covers about 10% of the country, with most designated for commercial production.^[53] Forested areas typically consist of monoculture plantations of non-native species which may result in habitats that are not suitable for supporting a broad range of native species of invertebrates. Remnants of native forest can be found scattered around the country, in particular in the Killarney National Park. Natural areas require fencing to prevent over-grazing by deer and sheep that roam over uncultivated areas. This is one of the main factors preventing the natural regeneration of forests across many regions of the country.^[56]

[edit] Climate

Ireland has a temperate oceanic climate with temperatures rarely lower than −3 °C (26.6 °F) in winter or higher than 22 °C (72 °F) in summer.^[57] The Atlantic Ocean is the main force shaping Ireland's weather and there is a warming influence due to the Gulf Stream.^[58] Temperatures differ from region to region, with the middle and east tending to be more extreme in comparison to other areas. Sunshine duration is highest in the south-east.^[58] Ireland's rainfall patterns are highest in the winter and lowest during the early months of summer.^[58]

Determined by the south-westerly Atlantic winds, geographically the northwest, west and southwest of the country receives the most substantial rainfall, with Dublin being the driest region.^[58] The far-north and west of Ireland are two of the windiest regions in Europe with substantial potential for wind energy generation.^[59] The highest temperature recorded in Ireland was 33.3 °C (91.9 °F) on 26 June 1887 at Kilkenny Castle in Kilkenny,^[60] while the lowest was −19.1 °C (−2.4 °F) on 16 January 1881 at Markree Castle, Sligo.^[60]

[edit] Economy

[edit] History

International Financial Services Centre

From the 1920s Ireland had high trade barriers such as high tariffs, particularly during the Economic War with Britain in the 1930s, and a policy of import substitution. During the 1950s, 400,000 people emigrated from Ireland.^[63] It became increasingly clear that economic nationalism was unsustainable. While other European countries enjoyed fast growth, Ireland suffered economic stagnation.^[63] The policy changes were drawn together in Economic Development, an official paper published in 1958 that advocated free trade, foreign investment, productive investment, and growth rather than fiscal restraint as the prime objective of economic management.^[63]

In the 1970s, the population increased by 15% for the first time since independence. National income increased at an annual rate of about 4%. Employment increased by around 1% per year, but the state sector amounted to a large part of that. Public sector employment was a third of the total workforce by 1980. Budget deficits and public debt increased, leading to the crisis in the 1980s.^[63] During the 1980s, underlying economic problems became pronounced. Middle income workers were taxed 60% of their marginal income,^[64] unemployment had risen to 20%, annual overseas emigration reached over 1% of population, and public deficits reached 15% of GDP.

In 1987 Fianna Fáil reduced public spending, cut taxes, and promoted competition. Ryanair used Ireland's deregulated aviation market and helped European regulators to see benefits of competition in transport markets. Intel invested in 1989 and was followed by a number of technology companies such as Microsoft and Google. A consensus exists among all government parties about the sustained economic growth.^[63] The GDP per capita in the OECD prosperity ranking rose from 21st in 1993 to 4th in 2002.^[65] Between 1985 and 2002, private sector jobs increased 59%.^[15] The economy shifted from an agriculture to a knowledge economy, focusing on services and high-tech industries. Economic growth averaged 10% from 1995 to 2000, and 7% from 2001 to 2004. Industry, which accounts for 46% of GDP and about 80% of exports, has replaced agriculture as the country's leading economic sector.

Dublin Port

[edit] Exports

Exports play an important role in Ireland's economic growth. A series of significant discoveries of base metal deposits have been made, including the giant ore deposit at Tara Mine. Zinc-lead ores are also currently mined from two other underground operations in Lisheen and Galmoy. Ireland now ranks as the seventh largest producer of zinc concentrates in the world, and the twelfth largest producer of lead concentrates. The combined output from these mines make Ireland the largest zinc producer in Europe and the second largest producer of lead.^[66] Ireland is the world's most profitable country for US corporations, according to the US tax journal Tax Notes.^[67] The country is one of the largest exporters of pharmaceuticals and software-related goods and services in the world.^[68] Bord Gáis is responsible for the supply and distribution of natural gas, which was first brought ashore in 1976 from the Kinsale Head gas field. New sources of supply are expected to come on stream after 2010, including the Corrib gas field and potentially the Shannon Liquefied Natural Gas terminal.^[69]

[edit] Celtic Tiger

The economy benefited from a rise in consumer spending, construction, and business investment. Since 1987, a key part of economic policy has been Social Partnership, which is a neo-corporatist set of voluntary 'pay pacts' between the Government, employers and trade unions. The 1995 to 2000 period of high economic growth led many to call the country the Celtic Tiger.^[70] GDP growth continued to be relatively robust, with a rate of about 6% in 2001, over 4% in 2004, and 4.7% in 2005. With high growth came high inflation. Prices in Dublin were considerably higher than elsewhere in the country, especially in the property market.^[71] However, property prices are falling following the recent economic recession. At the end of July 2008, the annual rate of inflation was at 4.4% (as measured by the CPI) or 3.6% (as measured by the HICP)^[72][73] and inflation actually dropped slightly from the previous month.

In terms of GDP per capita, Ireland is ranked as one of the wealthiest countries in the OECD and the EU-27, at 4th in the OECD-28 rankings. In terms of GNP per capita, a better measure of national income, Ireland ranks below the OECD average, despite significant growth in recent years, at 10th in the OECD-28 rankings. GDP is significantly greater than GNP (national income) due to the large amount of multinational firms based in Ireland.^[74] A study by The Economist found Ireland to have the best quality of life in the world.^[75]

The positive reports and economic statistics masked several underlying imbalances. The construction sector, which was inherently cyclical in nature, accounted for a significant component of Ireland's GDP. A recent downturn in residential property market sentiment has highlighted the over-exposure of the Irish economy to construction, which now presents a threat to economic growth.^[76][77][78] Despite several successive years of economic growth and significant improvements since 2000, Ireland's population is marginally more at risk of poverty than the EU-15 average.^[74] Figures show that 6.8% of Ireland's population suffer "consistent poverty".^[79]

[edit] Currency

In 1999, Ireland launched the euro currency with 11 other EU member states.

Before the introduction of the euro notes and coins in January 2002, Ireland used the Irish pound or punt. In January 1999 Ireland was one of eleven European Union member states which launched the European Single Currency, the euro. Euro banknotes are issued in €5, €10, €20, €50, €100, €200 and €500 denominations and share the common design used across Europe, however like other countries in the eurozone, Ireland has its own unique design on one face of euro coins.^[80] The government decided on a single national design for all Irish coin denominations, which show a Celtic harp, a traditional symbol of Ireland, decorated with the year of issue and the word Éire.

[edit] Recent developments

Ireland is currently ranked as the world's third most economically free economy in an index created by the Wall Street Journal and Heritage Foundation, the Index of Economic Freedom. Ireland was the first country in the EU to officially enter a recession as declared by the Central Statistics Office.^[81] Ireland now has the second-highest level of household debt in the world (190% of household income).^[82] Ireland's credit rating was downgraded to AA- by Standard & Poor's ratings agency in August 2010 due to the cost of supporting the banks, which would weaken the Government's financial flexibility over the medium term.^[83]

Economic growth has slowed after the construction boom of the last decade. The construction crash and the global recession has impacted Ireland significantly. However, the Irish economy is showing signs of stability. There has been a significant fall in house prices and the cost of living is beginning to stabilise. During the boom, Ireland had developed a reputation as one of the most expensive countries in Europe. The Irish Economy contracted by -1.7% in 2008 and -7.1% in 2009 (4.7% growth in 2007). During the first quarter of 2010, the Irish economy officially exited the recession, following growth of 2.7% in Q1 and 0.3% in Q4 of 2009.^[84][85] The European Commission is forecasting that the Irish economy will grow by 3% in 2011, which is one of the fastest rates of economic growth Brussels is predicting for any EU member state.^[86]

[edit] Transport

Heuston Station

The state has three main international airports (Dublin, Shannon, and Cork) that serve a wide variety of European and intercontinental routes with scheduled and chartered flights. The national airline is Aer Lingus, although low cost airline Ryanair is the largest airline. The route between London and Dublin is the busiest international air route in Europe, with 4.5 million people flying between the two cities in 2006.^[87][88]

Railway services are provided by Iarnród Éireann. Dublin is the centre of the network, with two main stations (Heuston and Connolly) linking to the main towns and cities. The Enterprise service, run jointly with Northern Ireland Railways, connects Dublin with Belfast. Dublin has a steadily improving public transport network of varying quality including the DART, Luas, Bus service and an expanding rail network.

Ryanair

The road network is focused on Dublin, and motorways are currently being extended to other major cities as part of the Transport 21 programme, which aims to have a world-class motorway network in place by the end of 2010. By then most of Ireland's main cities will be connected to Dublin with motorways or with near-motorway standard roads. Dublin has been the focus of some other major projects, such as the East-Link and West-Link toll-bridges, as well as the Dublin Port Tunnel. Major by-pass projects are underway at other cities and towns. The Jack Lynch Tunnel under the River Lee in Cork was a major project outside Dublin, and a fourth crossing at Limerick under the River Shannon (known as the Limerick Tunnel) was officially opened to motorists in July 2010.^[89] The motorways and national routes (national primary roads and national secondary roads) are managed by the National Roads Authority. The rest of the roads (regional roads and local roads) are managed by the local authorities in each of their areas.

Regular ferry services operate between Ireland and Britain, the Isle of Man and France.

[edit] Education

University College Cork

Ireland has three levels of education: primary, secondary and higher education. The education systems are largely under the direction of the government via the Minister for Education and Science. Recognised primary and secondary schools must adhere to the curriculum established by authorities that have power to set them. All children must receive compulsory education between the ages of six and fifteen years, and all children up to the age of eighteen must complete the first three years of secondary, including one sitting of the Junior Certificate examination.^[90] The Leaving Certificate, taken after two years of study, is the final examination in the secondary school system. Those intending to pursue higher education normally takes this examination, with access to third-level courses generally depending on results obtained from the best six subjects taken, on a competitive basis.^[91]

Third-level education awards are conferred by more than 38 Higher Education Institutions including University College Dublin (UCD), University of Dublin (Trinity College), Dublin City University, Dublin Institute of Technology, Higher Education and Training Awards Council, National University of Ireland, Cork Institute of Technology, Waterford Institute of Technology, University of Limerick and Mary Immaculate College, Limerick. These are the degree-awarding authorities approved by the Government of Ireland and can grant awards at all academic levels.

The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Ireland's education as the 20th best among participating countries in science, being statistically significantly higher than the OECD average.^[92] In 2006, Irish students aged 15 years had the second highest levels of reading literacy in the EU.^[93] Primary, secondary and higher (University/College) level education are all free in Ireland for all EU citizens.^[94] There are charges to cover student services and examinations.

[edit] Healthcare

The R.C.S.I Disease Research Centre in Beaumont Hospital, which is one of the largest general hospitals in the country.

The Minister for Health and Children has responsibility for setting overall policy with regard to the health service. Every individual resident in Ireland is entitled to receive health care through the public health care system, which is managed by the Health Service Executive and funded by general taxation. A person may be required to pay a subsidised fee for certain health care received; this depends on income, age, illness or disability. All maternity services are provided free of charge and children up to the age of 6 months . Emergency care is provided at a cost of €100 for a visit to the Accident and Emergency department.

Anyone holding a European Health Insurance Card are entitled to free maintenance and treatment in public beds in Health Service Executive and voluntary hospitals. Outpatient services are also provided for free. However the majority of patients on median incomes or above, are required to pay subsidised hospital charges. Private health insurance is available to the population for those who want to avail of it. Vhi Healthcare (government owned), Quinn Healthcare, and Aviva provide health insurance, among other services.

[edit] Demographics

Population of Ireland from 1936 to 2006.

Genetic research suggests that the first settlers of Ireland came through migrations from Iberia following the end of the most recent ice age.^[95] After the Mesolithic, the Neolithic and Bronze Age, migrants introduced Celtic culture and languages to Ireland. These later migrants from the Neolithic to Bronze Age still represent a majority of the genetic heritage of Irish people.^[96][97] Culture spread throughout the island, and the Gaelic tradition became the dominant form in Ireland. Today, Irish people are mainly of Gaelic ancestry, and some of Norse, Anglo-Norman, English, Scottish, French and Welsh ancestry. Gaelic culture forms an important part of national identity. In the UK Irish Travellers are a recognised ethnic minority group, politically (not ethnically) linked with European Roma and Gypsy groups,^[98] although in Ireland they are classified as a "social group".^[99]

Ireland has one of the fastest growing populations in Europe. From 2004 to 2006 the growth rate in was above 2%. This is due to falling death rates, rising birth rates and high immigration levels.^[100] Ireland has the youngest population in Europe, with only 11.2% over 65. The country is forecast to have the least proportion of the 65+ age group in Europe until 2035.^[101] Forcasted population growths are the second highest in Europe, with a population projection of 6,057,000 by 2035.^[101] These projections may have to be revised due to recent economic challenges.

Non-Irish Nationals living in Ireland
Country of origin	Population[102][103]
United Kingdom	112,548
Poland	63,276
Lithuania	24,628
Nigeria	16,300
Latvia	13,319
United States	12,475
China	11,161
Germany	10,289
Philippines	9,548
France	9,046

[edit] Population

Ireland's population has increased significantly in recent years. Much of this population growth can be attributed to the arrival of immigrants and the return of Irish people (often with their foreign-born children) who emigrated in large numbers in earlier years during periods of high unemployment. In addition the birth rate in Ireland is currently over double the death rate, which is highly unusual among Western European countries.^[104] Approximately 10% of Ireland's population is now made up of foreign citizens.

• The total population of Ireland on Census Day, 23 April 2006, was 4,234,925, an increase of 317,722, or 8.1% since 2002.
• Allowing for births (245,000) and deaths (114,000), the derived net immigration of people between 2002 and 2006 was 186,000.
• Ireland has 419,733 foreign citizens. This does not include 1,318 people with 'no nationality', and 44,279 people with no stated nationality.
• The single largest group of immigrants comes from the United Kingdom, followed by Poland, Lithuania and Nigeria.
• 94.8% of the population was recorded as having a 'White' ethnic or cultural background. 1.1% had a 'Black or Black Irish' background, 1.3% had an 'Asian or Asian Irish' background and 1.7% of the population's background was 'not stated'.
• The average annual rate of increase, 2%, is the highest on record (1.3% from 1996 to 2002 and 1.5% from 1971 to 1979).
• The 2006 population was last exceeded in the 1861 Census when the population then was 4.4 million.
• The population of Leinster grew by 8.9%; Munster by 6.5%; and the population decline of the Connacht–Ulster^[105] region halted.
• The ratio of males to females has declined in each of the four provinces between 1979 and 2006. Leinster is the only province where the number of females exceeds the number of males. Males predominate in rural counties such as Cavan, Leitrim, and Roscommon while there are more females in cities and urban areas.

A detailed breakdown of these figures is available here: Census 2006 Principal Demographic ResultsPDF (894 KB). See Irish Population Analysis for Ireland's population history.

[edit] Language

English and Irish are the official languages. They are compulsory in primary and secondary level schools recognised by the state. Some students may be exempt from the requirement to receive instruction in either language. English is the dominant language throughout the country. People in dominantly Irish-speaking communities, Gaeltacht regions, are limited to the low tens of thousands in isolated areas mostly on the western seaboard. Road signs are usually bilingual, except in Gaeltacht regions.^[106]

The legal status of place names has been the subject of controversy, with an order made in 2005 under the Official Languages Act changing the official name of certain locations from English back to Irish. Dingle had its name changed to An Daingean despite local opposition and a local plebiscite requesting that the name be changed to a bilingual version: Dingle Daingean Uí Chúis. Most public notices and print media are in English only. Most Government publications are available in both languages, and citizens have the right to deal with the state in Irish. Media in Irish exist on TV (TG4), radio (e.g. RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta), and in print (e.g. Foinse). According to the 2006 census, 1,656,790 people (39%) in Ireland regard themselves as competent in Irish; though no figures are available for English-speakers, it is thought to be almost 100%.

The Polish language is one of the most widely spoken languages in Ireland after English. There are 63,276 Poles resident in Ireland according to the 2006 census. Central and Eastern European languages, such as Polish, can be heard spoken on a day-to-day basis across Ireland. Other languages spoken in Ireland include Shelta, spoken by the Irish Traveller population and a dialect of Scots is spoken by some descendants of Scottish settlers in Ulster.

Most secondary school students choose one or two foreign languages to learn. Languages available for the Junior Certificate and the Leaving Certificate include French, German, Italian and Spanish; Leaving Certificate students can also study Arabic, Japanese and Russian. Some schools also offer Ancient Greek, Hebrew Studies and Latin at second level.

[edit] Religion

Christianity is the predominant religion in Ireland, and is dominated by the Roman Catholic Church. Ireland's constitution states that the state may not endorse any particular religion and guarantees freedom of religion. In 2006, 86.8% of the population identified themselves as Roman Catholic, 1.4% less than 4 years earlier, although the number of Catholics increased by 218,800.^[107] According to a Georgetown University study, the country also has one of the highest rates of regular Mass attendance in the Western World.^[108] While daily Mass attendance was 13% in 2006 there had been a reduction in weekly attendance from 81% to 48% between 1990 and 2006, although the decline was reported as leveling off^[109], and all but two of its major seminaries have closed (St Patrick's College, Maynooth and St Malachy's College, Belfast). A number of theological colleges continue to educate both ordained and lay people.

Other significant Protestant denominations are the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, followed by the Methodist Church in Ireland. The second largest Christian denomination, the Church of Ireland (Anglican), declined in membership for most of the twentieth century, but has more recently experienced an increase, as have other small Christian denominations. The country's Hindu and Muslim populations have experienced significant growth in recent years, due chiefly to immigration. The very small Jewish community in Ireland also recorded a marginal increase (see History of the Jews in Ireland) in the same period. In percentage terms, Orthodoxy and Islam were the fastest growing religions, up by 100% and 70% respectively.^[110]

Saint Patrick is Ireland's most recognised patron saint.

The patron saints of Ireland are Saint Patrick, Saint Bridget and Saint Columba. Saint Patrick is the only one of the three who is commonly recognised as the patron saint. Saint Patrick's Day, March 17, is celebrated in Ireland and abroad as the Irish national day, with parades and other celebrations. The 2006 census recorded 186,318 people (4.4% of the population) who described themselves as having "no religion." An additional 1,515 people described themselves as agnostic and 929 as atheist. A further 70,322 (1.7%) did not respond to the question.^[111]

Originally, the 1937 Constitution of Ireland gave the Catholic Church a "special position" as the church of the majority, but also recognised other Christian denominations and Judaism. As with other predominantly Catholic European states, the Irish state underwent a period of legal secularisation in the late twentieth century. In 1972, the article of the Constitution naming specific religious groups, was deleted by the fifth amendment of the constitution in a referendum. Article 44 still remains in the Constitution: The State acknowledges that the homage of public worship is due to Almighty God. It shall hold His Name in reverence, and shall respect and honour religion.

The article also establishes freedom of religion (for belief, practice, and organisation without interference), prohibits endowment of any religion, prohibits the state from religious discrimination, and requires the state to treat religious and non-religious schools in a non-prejudicial manner.

Despite a large number of schools in Ireland being run by religious organisations, a general trend of secularism is occurring within the Irish population, particularly in the younger generations.^[112] Many efforts have been made by secular groups to eliminate the rigorous study in the second and sixth classes, to prepare for the sacraments of Holy Communion and confirmation in Catholic schools. Parents can ask for their children to be excluded from religious study if they wish. However, religious studies as a subject was introduced into the state administered Junior Certificate in 2001; it is not compulsory and deals with aspects of different religions, not focusing on one particular religion.

Schools run by religious organisations, but receiving public money and recognition, cannot discriminate against pupils based upon, or lack of, religion. A sanctioned system of preference does exist, where students of a particular religion may be accepted before those who do not share the ethos of the school, in a case where a school's quota has already been reached.

[edit] Culture

William Butler Yeats

[edit] Literature and theatre

Ireland has made a large contribution to world literature in all its branches, in both Irish and English. James Joyce published his most famous work Ulysses, an interpretation of the Odyssey set in Dublin, in 1922. Edith Somerville continued writing after the death of her partner Martin Ross in 1915. Dublin's Annie M. P. Smithson was one of several authors catering for fans of romantic fiction in the 1920s and 1930s. After the war popular novels were published by, among others, Brian O'Nolan, who published as Flann O'Brien, Elizabeth Bowen, Kate O'Brien. In the last few decades of the 20th century Edna O'Brien, John McGahern, Maeve Binchy, Joseph O'Connor, Roddy Doyle, Colm Tóibín and John Banville came to the fore as novelists.

Patricia Lynch (1898–1972) was a prolific children's author, while recently Eoin Colfer has been particularly successful in this genre. In the genre of the short story, a form favoured by Irish writers, Seán Ó Faoláin, Frank O'Connor and William Trevor are prominent. Poets include W.B. Yeats (Nobel Prize in Literature laureate), Patrick Kavanagh, Seamus Heaney (Nobel Literature laureate), Thomas McCarthy and Dermot Bolger. Prominent writers in the Irish language are Pádraic Ó Conaire, Máirtín Ó Cadhain, Séamus Ó Grianna and Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill. Following in the tradition of Shaw (Nobel Prize in Literature Laureate), Wilde and Samuel Beckett (Nobel Prize in Literature Laureate), playwrights such as Seán O'Casey, Brian Friel, Sebastian Barry, Brendan Behan, Conor McPherson and Billy Roche have gained popular success.^[113]

The history of Irish theatre in the familiar sense begins with the rise of the English administration in Dublin at the start of the 17th century. Over the following 400 years Ireland has made a significant contribution to drama in English. In its early history, theatrical productions in Ireland tended to serve the political purposes of the administration, but as more theatres opened and the popular audience grew, a more diverse range of entertainments were staged. Many Dublin-based theatres developed links with their London equivalents and performers and productions from the British capital frequently found their way to the Irish stage. However, most Irish playwrights from William Congreve to George Bernard Shaw found it necessary to go abroad to establish themselves. At the beginning of the 20th century, theatre companies dedicated to the staging of Irish plays and the development of indigenous writers, directors and performers began to emerge. This allowed many of the most significant Irish dramatists to learn their trade and establish their reputations in Ireland rather than in the UK or USA.

[edit] Music and dance

Westlife

Ireland is known for its traditional music, which has remained vibrant despite globalising cultural forces. Irish music has kept many of its traditional aspects and has influenced many forms of music, such as country and roots music in the USA, which in turn have had some influence on modern rock music. It has occasionally been fused with rock and roll, punk rock and other genres. Among the best-known modern performers are groups such as The Dubliners, The Chieftains, Clannad, The Saw Doctors and Altan, singers such as Christy Moore and Mary Black, ensembles such as Anúna and Celtic Woman and cross-over artists such as singers Enya and Sinéad O'Connor. Ireland has produced internationally influential artists in other genres such as rock, pop, jazz and blues including The Pogues, U2, Boyzone, Westlife, Chris de Burgh, Ronan Keating, Thin Lizzy, The Corrs, The Cranberries, Damien Rice, Blues guitarist Rory Gallagher and Academy Award winner Glen Hansard of The Frames. Contemporary artists include The Script, The Coronas, Republic of Loose, Bell X1, Jape, Two Door Cinema Club, The Blizzards, Mick Flannery, and Lisa Hannigan.

There are a number of classical music ensembles around the country,^[114] such as the RTÉ Performing Groups. Opera lovers are catered for by three organisations, Opera Ireland, which produces large-scale operas in Dublin, Opera Theatre Company, which is also based in Dublin, and tours its chamber-style operas throughout the country, and the third being the annual Wexford Opera Festival, which in the autumn promotes lesser-known operas and is located in Wexford city.

Traditional Irish dancing can broadly be divided into social dance and performance dances. Irish social dances can be divided further into céilí and set dancing. Irish set dances are quadrilles, danced by 4 couples arranged in a square, while céilí dances are danced by varied formations (ceili) of couples of 2 to 16 people. In addition to their formation, there are significant stylistic differences between these two forms of social dance. Irish social dance is a living tradition, and variations in particular dances are found across the Irish dance community; in some places, dances are deliberately modified and new dances are choreographed. Performance dancing is traditionally referred to as stepdance. Irish stepdance, popularised in 1994 by the world-famous show "Riverdance", is notable for its rapid leg movements, body and arms being kept largely stationary. The solo stepdance is generally characterised by a controlled but not rigid upper body, straight arms, and quick, precise movements of the feet. The solo dances can either be in "soft shoe" or hard shoe".

RTÉ News studio

[edit] Media

While many people still receive their television via the off-air networks, many subscribe to multichannel networks, with Sky being the most popular.^[115] This allows for hundreds of channels to be available in Ireland. There are four national terrestrial channels in Ireland: RTÉ One, RTÉ Two, TV3 and TG4. RTÉ is the country’s public service broadcaster. RTÉ News is the most popular news source in Ireland, with 77% of the public regarding it as their main source of news.^[116] The channel has various political and current affairs programmes such as Prime Time and The Frontline. The Late Late Show is RTÉ’s flagship programme and is the world’s longest running chat show.^[117] It is broadcast live on RTÉ One on Friday nights between September and May. RTÉ Two focuses on programmes for a younger audience with sports and imported programmes. The children's strand, The Den, runs on weekday afternoons, followed by its youth strand, Two Tube.

The flourishing Irish film industry, state-supported by Bord Scannán na hÉireann, helped launch the careers of directors Neil Jordan and Jim Sheridan, and supported Irish films such as John Crowley's Intermission, Neil Jordan's Breakfast on Pluto, and others. A policy of tax breaks and other incentives has also attracted international film to Ireland, including Mel Gibson's Braveheart and Steven Spielberg's Saving Private Ryan. Maureen O'Sullivan is considered by many to be Ireland's first film star.^[118] Other Irish actors who have made it to Hollywood include Maureen O'Hara, Barry Fitzgerald, Richard Harris, Evanna Lynch, Peter O'Toole, Liam Neeson, Pierce Brosnan, Gabriel Byrne, Brendan Gleeson, Daniel Day Lewis (by citizenship), Colm Meaney, Colin Farrell, Brenda Fricker, Jonathan Rhys-Meyers, Saoirse Ronan, Stuart Townsend, Michael Gambon, and Cillian Murphy.

RTÉ Radio broadcasts four nationwide radio stations: RTÉ Radio 1, RTÉ 2fm, RTÉ lyric fm and RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta. The independent national radio stations are Today FM and Newstalk. There are four independent regional stations which aim for a younger audience: Beat 102-103, Spin South West, i102-104FM and i105-107FM. There are 25 local radio stations. Some counties are covered by only one station, but Dublin and Cork have several. There are also many licensed community radio stations operating on a non-commercial basis.

There are several daily newspapers in Ireland, including the Irish Independent, The Irish Examiner, The Irish Times, Irish Daily Star, and the Evening Herald. The best selling of these is the Irish Independent, which is published in both tabloid and broadsheet formats. The leading Sunday newspaper in terms of circulation is the Sunday Independent. Other popular papers include The Sunday Tribune, The Sunday Business Post, Ireland on Sunday and the Sunday World. There are also many local weekly newspapers in counties and large towns.

Poulnabrone dolmen, County Clare, was built during the neolithic period.

Ruins of Tintern Abbey, County Wexford. It was founded in the 13th century by the Earl of Pembroke.

[edit] Architecture

Some architectural features in Ireland date back to the prehistoric period, including standing stones and tombs. The best known example is the World Heritage Site, Brú na Bóinne (Palace of the Boyne), as well as the Poulnabrone dolmen, Castlestrange stone, Turoe stone and Drombeg circle.^[119] Due to the Roman Empire never conquering the island, ancient architecture of Greco-Roman origin is extremely rare, though Drumanagh is a possible example. Ireland instead had an extended, though developing, period of Iron Age architecture.^[120] The Irish round tower acting as a belfry is a building type originating from the island during the Early Medieval period. The other building types unique to Ireland are the handball alley and the now almost unknown combined bar and shop outlet.

With the introduction of Christianity, simple monastic houses constructed from stone were built, such as Clonmacnoise, Skellig Michael and Scattery Island. Some academics have remarked a stylistic similarity between these early double monastery buildings and those of the Copts of Egypt.^[121] Gaelic kings and aristocrats lived in ringforts on top of hills or crannógs on lakes.^[122] After Viking invasions the first significantly built up urban areas were created,^[122] the Viking longphorts located on the coast such as Dublin, Cork, Waterford, Wexford and Limerick. 12th century Church reforms via the Cistercians stimulated continental influence as abbeys; Mellifont, Boyle and Tintern were built in a Romanesque style.^[123] With the Norman invasion in parts of the island, castles were built, such as Dublin Castle, Kilkenny Castle and Ashford Castle.^[124] More importantly the Normans introduced the concept of the planned walled trading town owned by the Castle dwelling landlord (the only previous settlements were Monastic proto-towns and the five major Hiberno-Norse ports) which with the later plantation towns constitute the majority of present day Irish towns. Examples of still surviving Norman founded planned towns include Drogheda, Arklow and Youghal whilst an example of the plantation towns is Portlaoise.

Dublin Custom House is an example of neoclassical architecture in Ireland.

Gothic cathedrals with high-pointed arches and clustered columns such as St Patrick's were also introduced by the Normans.^[125] Franciscans were dominant in directing the abbeys by the Late Middle Ages, while elegant tower houses were built by the Gaelic and Norman aristocracy, where Bunratty Castle is perhaps the best preserved.^[126] After the Tudor conquest many religious buildings were ruined with the Dissolution of the Monasteries.^[127] Following the Restoration, palladianism and rococo, particularly country houses, swept through Ireland under the initiative of Edward Lovett Pearce, with the Irish Parliament House being the most significant.^[128] With the erection of buildings such as the Custom House, Four Courts, General Post Office and King's Inns, the neoclassical and Georgian styles flourished, especially in the capital Dublin.^[128] The Georgian townhouses, with a more complex section than their London antecedents, combined to produce streets of singular distinction, and to a large extent still survive, mainly in Dublin but also in Limerick and Cork, and continue to contribute to the streetscape and urban character in the central parts of those cities.

Following Catholic Emancipation cathedrals and churches, such as St Colman's and St Finbarre's, influenced by the French Gothic Revival sprung up.^[128] Ireland has long been associated with thatched roof cottages, though these are nowadays considered quaint.^[129] In many Irish towns, colourfully painted shop fronts are to be found, sometimes extended to houses. Since the 20th century, starting with the American designed art deco church at Turner's Cross in 1927,^[130] various modernist forms have been created. The best known examples include Busáras and the Spire of Dublin, sometimes proving controversial in public reception.^[131][132] Traditional projects are still undertaken, such as Galway Cathedral in 1958.^[133] Modern developments include the regeneration of Ballymun and an urban extension of Dublin at Adamstown, facilitated by its designation under planning legislation as a SDZ (strategic development zone).^[134]

[edit] Sport

Croke Park is the headquarters of the Gaelic Athletic Association and is the third largest stadium in Europe.

Ireland's national sports are Gaelic football^[135] and hurling,^[136] which are organised on an all-Ireland basis. Hurling along with Gaelic football are administered by the Gaelic Athletic Association. By attendance figures Gaelic football and hurling are by far the most popular sports in Ireland, 34% of total attendances at sports events being to football and 24% to hurling.^[137][138] Golf and soccer are the most played at 17% of the population each.^[139] Notable former Gaelic games players include the now retired pair of DJ Carey and Seamus Moynihan. The former Taoiseach Jack Lynch was a noted hurler and All-Ireland winner before entering politics. Well-known current players include Henry Shefflin, Sean Cavanagh and Colm Cooper.

In rugby union the all-Ireland national team has produced world class players such as Brian O'Driscoll, Ronan O'Gara, Paul O'Connell and Keith Wood and most recent achievements include winning the RBS Six Nations and Grand Slam 2009. In athletics, Sonia O'Sullivan, Eamonn Coghlan, Catherina McKiernan, Ronnie Delaney, John Treacy, David Gillick and Derval O'Rourke have won medals at international events. In cricket, the Ireland national cricket team represents all-Ireland. The team is an associate member of the International Cricket Council with One Day International status. Ken Doherty is a former World Champion (1997) snooker player.

Ireland's national football league is the League of Ireland, but most well-known players play in the English Premier League and Scottish Premier League. Notable Irish internationals include former players Roy Keane, Johnny Giles, Liam Brady, Denis Irwin, Packie Bonner, Niall Quinn and Paul McGrath, and current players Steve Finnan, Shay Given, Damien Duff, John O'Shea, Aiden McGeady and Robbie Keane.

John L. Sullivan, born 1858 in the United States to Irish immigrant parents, was the first modern world heavyweight champion. Barry McGuigan and Steve Collins were also world champion boxers, while Bernard Dunne was a European super bantamweight champion and is current WBA Super Bantamweight champion. Michael Carruth is also an Olympic gold medallist having won at welterweight at the Barcelona Olympic Games in 1992. Current prospects in the middleweight division are the undefeated John Duddy, and Andy Lee who has one defeat. Both fighters are aiming for world championship fights. At the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing in China, the Irish team won 3 medals, with Kenneth Egan winning silver and Darren Sutherland and Paddy Barnes earning bronzes.

In motor sport, during the 1990s Jordan Grand Prix became the only independent team to win multiple Formula One races. In 2007 the Rally of Ireland became a qualifying round of the FIA World Rally Championship and attracted an estimated attendance of some 200,000 spectators.^[140] In cycling, Ireland produced Stephen Roche, the first and only Irishman to win the Tour de France in 1987, and the prolific Sean Kelly. In clay pigeon shooting Derek Burnett, David Malone and Philip Murphy are notable for their silver and gold medals in ISSF World Cup competitions, as well as Malones single gold medal in a world cup. Malone and Burnett are also notable for their appearances in the Summer Olympics, with Malone competing in Sydney in 2000, and Burnett competing in Sydney, Athens and Beijing, from 2000 to 2008. In golf, the 2008 USPGA champion was Irishman Pádraig Harrington, which was his third major win. In 2002, Dermott Lennon became the first Irish rider to win a Show Jumping World Championship gold medal.

[edit] Society

The prohibition on divorce in the 1937 Constitution was repealed in 1995 under the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution. The 1983 Eighth Amendment to the Constitution recognised "the right to life of the unborn", subject to qualifications concerning the "equal right to life" of the mother. The case of Attorney General v. X subsequently prompted passage of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments, guaranteeing the right to have an abortion performed abroad, and the right to learn about "services" that are illegal in Ireland but legal abroad.

Contraception was controlled in Ireland until 1979.^[141] The legislation which outlawed homosexual acts was repealed in 1993, though before this it was generally for dealing with under-age sex.^[142][143] Discrimination based on age, gender, sexual orientation, maritial or familial status, religion, race or membership of the travelling community is illegal. Same-sex civil partnerships legislation was published in June 2008. In July 2010, the Dáil and the Seanad passed the Civil Partnership Bill, recognising civil partnerships between same-sex couples.^[144] The legislation will allow same-sex couples to register their relationship before a registrar.^[145] A poll carried out in 2008 showed that 84% of Irish people supported civil marriage or civil partnerships for gay and lesbian couples, with 58% supporting full marriage rights in registry offices.^[146] A later poll put support for same-sex marriage at 63%.^[147]

In 2002, Ireland became the first country to have an environmental levy for all plastic shopping bags; while in 2004 the country became the first in the world to ban smoking in all workplaces. The country was also the first in Europe to ban incandescent lightbulbs in 2008.^[148] The death penalty is constitutionally banned in Ireland, and the country was one of the main nations involved in the 2008 Convention on Cluster Munitions, which was formally endorsed in Dublin. Ireland became the first country in the European Union to ban in-store tobacco advertising and displays of tobacco products on 1 July 2009.^[149] Ireland ranks eighth in the world in terms of gender equality.^[150]

[edit] International rankings

^{† Per capita}

^{↓ Ranked in reverse order}

[edit] See also

	Ireland portal
	European Union portal

• Island of Ireland
• List of Ireland-related topics

[edit] Notes

1. ^ Prior to 1999, the Republic of Ireland used the punt (Irish pound) as its circulated currency. In 2002, the punt ceased to be legal tender.
2. ^ For example:
   • "Eire, as Southern Ireland has been called since 1937, was founded, under the name of the Irish Free State..." - CF Strong, Modern political constitutions, Sidgwick and Jackson: London, 1972
   • "The present state of the Republic of Ireland was established in 1922." - Encyclopedia Americana, Vol 15, New York: Americana Corporation, 1965
   • "The Irish Republic is a sovereign state comprising about three-quarters of the island of Ireland, with a population of about 3,500,000. The state was established in 1922 and has a written constitution ...." - D Reynolds, World class schools: international perspectives on school effectiveness, Roudledge: London, 2003
   For a more detailed discussion of the constitutional transition see J Coakley et al, 2005, Politics in the Republic of Ireland, Routledge: London:

   Ireland's constitution (Bunreacht na hÉireann) dates from 1937 and, despite significant innovations, marked a development of previous constitutional experience rather than a decisive break with it. ... In any case, for Fianna Fáil the Irish Free State constitution was inherently illegitimate no matter how it read. Eamon de Valera in particular felt the need for the state to have an entirely new constitution, and to this end he initiated the process of drafting one in 1935. ... Although legally and constitutionally this new constitution could have been enacted by the Oireachtas as one long amendment to the existing constitution, that would have defeated the whole point of the exercise; it was vital symbolically to seem to make a new beginning, and to have the Irish people confer the new constitution on themselves.

   Or Chubb in PJ Drudy (ed), 1986, Ireland and Britain since 1922, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge

   The Irish government today is carried on with the framework laid down in the Constitution, Bunreach na hÉireann, that dates from 1937. That Constitution is the successor of two previous constitutions, the Constitution of the Irish Free State (1922) and the Constitution of Dáil Éireann (1919) which was created by Sinn Féinn as part of the political struggle for independence. All three are best viewed as the products of a process of emancipation from British domination and the emergence from the British political system. They were milestones in the evolution of the country's relationship with the United Kingdom and marked stages in the transition from a province of an essentially English state to a sovereign republic.

3. ^ DW Hollis, 2001, The history of Ireland‎, Greenwood: Connecticut
   Michael J. Kennedy, 2000, Division and consensus: the politics of cross-border relations in Ireland, 1925-1969, Institute of Public Administration: Dublin
   

   "In April 1936 de Valera had announced that he was preparing to draft a new constitution to replace that of 1922. Drafting was in progress when the abdication of King Edward VIII in December 1936 gave de Valera the opportunity to make further constitutional changes and introduce the External Relations Bill. In London, the cabinet's Irish Situation Committee had been told by [Malcolm] MacDonald in November 1936 to expect such legislation in the near future, so its introduction was not a shock to the British. Even so, de Valera was concerned about the possible British reaction, and he was able to use the abdication crisis to implement a further revision of the Treaty, safe in the knowledge that British politicians had other matters on their minds."

4. ^ Ireland joined the EU (then EEC) in 1973 under a treaty drawn up in several languages including Irish and English. Since then, its two names have been used in the EU. For further consideration of the practice applied by the European Union, see Clause 7.2.4 of the Inter Institutional Style Guide of the European Union.

[edit] References

[edit] Bibliography

[edit] Further reading

[edit] External links

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Government

• Irish State – Official governmental portal
• Áras an Uachtaráin – Official presidential site
• Taoiseach – Official prime ministerial site
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General information

• Ireland entry at The World Factbook
• Ireland information from the United States Department of State
• Portals to the World from the United States Library of Congress
• Ireland at UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Ireland at the Open Directory Project
• Wikimedia Atlas of Ireland
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