Early Christianity

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Early Christianity is commonly defined as the Christianity of, roughly, the three centuries (1st, 2nd, 3rd, early 4th) between the Crucifixion of Jesus (circa 30 AD) and the First Council of Nicaea (325 AD). At first the Christian church was centered in Jerusalem and its leaders included James, Peter and John.^[1]

The first Christians were all Jews or Jewish proselytes, either by birth or conversion, referred to by historians as the Jewish Christians. Paul of Tarsus, after his conversion, claimed the title of "Apostle to the Gentiles". Though Paul's influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than any other New Testament author^[2], the relationship of Paul of Tarsus and Judaism is still disputed today. By the end of the first century, Christianity began to be recognized internally and externally as a separate religion from Rabbinic Judaism which itself was refined and developed further in the centuries after the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple.

Early Christians used and revered the Jewish Bible, generally in the Greek (Septuagint) or Aramaic (Targum) translations. As the New Testament canon developed, the letters of Paul, the Gospels and various other works were also recognized as scripture to be read in church. Paul's letters, especially Romans, established a theology based on Christ rather than on the Mosaic Law, but most Christian denominations today still consider the "moral prescriptions" of the Mosaic Law, such as the Ten Commandments, to be still relevant. Church Fathers further developed Christian theology and laid the groundwork for the doctrine of the Trinity. Early Christians demonstrated a wide range of beliefs and practices, many of which were later rejected as heretical.

Early Christians suffered sporadic persecution because they refused to worship the Roman gods or to pay homage to the emperor as divine. Early Christians considered martyrs to be particularly holy. In the 4th century Constantine allied himself with Christianity and ended persecution of Christians with the Edict of Milan.

What started as a religious movement within first century Judaism became, by the end of this period, the favored religion of the Roman Empire, as well as a significant religion outside the empire.^[3] According to Will Durant, the Christian Church prevailed over Paganism because it offered a much more attractive doctrine and because the church leaders addressed human needs better than their rivals.^[4] The First Council of Nicaea marks the end of this era and the beginning of the period of the First seven Ecumenical Councils (325 - 787).

Contents 1 History 2 Practices 2.1 Sacraments 2.1.1 Baptism 2.1.2 Eucharist 2.1.3 Penance 2.2 Worship 2.3 Church Community 2.4 Organization 2.5 Monasticism 3 Beliefs 3.1 Christology 3.1.1 Divinity of Christ 3.1.2 Trinity 3.2 Eschatology 3.2.1 Kingdom of God 3.2.2 Cosmology 3.2.3 Prayer for the dead 3.2.4 Hades 3.2.5 Angels and Satan 4 Orthodoxy and heterodoxy 5 Religious writing 5.1 Oral tradition and first written works 5.2 Paul's epistles 5.3 Gospels and Acts 5.4 Later epistles 5.5 Revelation 5.6 Defining scripture 5.7 Fathers of the church 5.7.1 Apostolic Fathers 5.7.2 Post-apostolic Fathers 6 Spread of Christianity 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links

[edit] History

After the Crucifixion of Jesus his disciples gathered together in Jerusalem, in an "upper room" perhaps where the Cenacle is today. James, brother^[6] of Jesus, was the early leader in Jerusalem^[7][8][9] of the Jewish sect from which Christianity would derive. James "the Just", as he came to be known, was martyred c.62 AD.^[10][11][12]

In line with the "Great Commission" attributed to the resurrected Jesus, the missionary activity of the Christian Apostles (the Twelve, Paul of Tarsus, and others), spread Christianity to cities throughout the Hellenistic world, such as Alexandria and Antioch, and also to Rome^[13] and even beyond the Roman Empire. The term "Christian" was first applied to members of the church at Antioch according to Acts 11:26. The New Testament includes letters written by Paul to churches, such as those in Thessalonica and Corinth, during the years 50-62^[14], see also Seven Churches of Asia. Early Christians continued the Jewish practice of reverence for the "Jewish Scriptures", using the Septuagint translation of Hellenistic Judaism that was in general use among Koine Greek-speakers, or the Targums in use among Aramaic-speakers, but added to it their own writings. These communities of faith differed significantly from region to region but had in common a fundamental and distinctive belief that characterized all of them, their conviction that Jesus of Nazareth was the Anointed One, or in the Greek "the Christ" and was raised from the dead, demonstrating his supremacy over both his adversaries and death itself.

In 70 the Second Temple was destroyed, and in c. 135 Jews were excluded from the renamed pagan city after the Bar Kokhba revolt. Among those who left the city were most of the Christian population.^[13] Traditionally it is believed the Jerusalem Christians waited out the wars in Pella in the Decapolis. Following this time, early Church historian Eusebius of Caesarea records that ethnically Jewish leadership of the church in Jerusalem (literally those "of Hebrew descent" and "of the circumcision") was replaced by Gentile leadership.^[15] According to the Catholic Encyclopedia^[16] these were Suffragan bishops appointed by the Metropolitan bishops of the capital in Caesarea. Similarly, Claudius had expelled the Jews from Rome in 49, though Nero allowed their return but turned against "Christians" (according to Tacitus) after the Great Fire of Rome of 64, the beginning of persecution by Roman authorities.^[3] Historians debate whether or not the Roman government distinguished between Christians and Jews prior to Nerva's modification of the Fiscus Judaicus in 96. From then on, practising Jews paid the tax; Christians did not.^[17]

Early Christianity spread from city to city in the Hellenized Roman Empire and beyond. As Christianity spread further during the 2nd century, notable proto-orthodox leaders and writers of this time include Irenaeus of Lyon,^[3] Polycarp of Smyrna, Ignatius of Antioch,^[3] Clement of Rome, and Justin Martyr. The 2nd century was also the time of several who were later declared to be major heretics, such as Marcion, Valentinius, and Montanus. During the third century, Christianity further increased in numbers (Robin Lane Fox suggests that Christians composed about 2% of the Empire by 250^[3]). Teachers of this period, including Origen in Alexandria and Tertullian in North Africa, expressed in their writings doctrines seen as Trinitarian. Anthony the Great and others established Christian monasticism, and Gregory the Illuminator was responsible for Armenia becoming the first officially Christian state. Following the conversion of Constantine the Great (just prior to the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312), the Roman Empire tolerated Christianity with the Edict of Milan in 313, leading later to the adoption of Christianity as the state religion in 380 by Theodosius I (see Edict of Thessalonica) and the rise of Christendom in the Byzantine empire.

What started as a religious movement within first century Judaism therefore became, by the end of this period, the favored religion of the Roman Empire, as well as a significant religion outside the empire.^[3] According to Will Durant, the Christian Church prevailed over Paganism because it offered a much more attractive doctrine and because the church leaders addressed human needs better than their rivals.^[4] The First Council of Nicaea marks the end of this era and the beginning of the period of the first seven Ecumenical Councils (325 - 787).

[edit] Practices

From the writings of early Christians, historians have tried to piece together an understanding of various early Christian practices including worship services, customs and observances. Early Christian writers such as Justin Martyr (100 - 165) described these practices.

[edit] Sacraments

The following rituals, which would later be defined as sacraments, existed in the early church.

[edit] Baptism

Early Christian beliefs (Christianity practised after the apostolic age) regarding baptism probably predate the New Testament writings. It seems certain that baptism was practised by numerous Jewish sects and certainly by Jesus and his disciples and was integral to nearly every manifestation of the religion of the Jews. Many of the interpretations that would later become orthodox Christian beliefs concerning baptism can be traced to apostles such as Paul, who described baptism as a burial (Romans 6:3,4; Colossians 2:12). On the basis of this description, it was supposed that the early Christians practised baptism by submersion, until this opinion was challenged in the early twentieth century on the basis of early pictorial depictions of baptism and the measurements of surviving baptismal fonts of the period,^[18] which show that, from at latest the second century, baptism was administered by pouring water over a person standing in water and who was thus immersed in it but not submerged.^[19][20] Tertullian describes the rite as a triple immersion, preceded by a fast or vigil, a confession of sins, and renouncing the devil, and as followed by anointing, the imposition of hands, and a symbolic meal (or ritual food) of milk and honey, the whole of the rite being normally presided over by the bishop, with Easter and Pentecost as the proper seasons for baptism in the early Christian period, though in case of necessity baptism might be administered at any time and by any male Christian.^[21] The theology of baptism attained precision in the 3rd and 4th centuries.^[20]

While it is clear that infant baptism began to be widely practised at least by the third century,^[2] the origins of the practice are controversial. Some believe that the apostolic church practised infant baptism, arguing that the mention of the baptism of households in the Acts of the Apostles must have included infants.^[22] In the second century, Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, may have referred to it.^[2][23][24]

The third century evidence is clearer, with both Origen^[25] and Cyprian advocating the practice. Tertullian refers to the practice (and that sponsors would speak on behalf of the children), but argues against it, on the grounds that baptism should be postponed until after marriage.^[26]

Interpretation of the baptismal practices of the early church is important to groups such as Baptists and Anabaptists, who believe that infant baptism was a later development.

[edit] Eucharist

Early Christians, in commemoration of the Lord's final supper before his death, celebrated the Eucharist in which bread and wine were consecrated as the body and blood of Christ. Before long, the Eucharist became the central and definitive act of Christian worship. The normal president for the celebration was a bishop or overseer (gk. episcopos), and to Ignatius, celebration of the sacrament by anyone other than a bishop "or one whom the bishop duly appoints"^[27] was not recognised as valid.

Kelly notes that Eucharistic teaching was "realist" in other words, "the consecrated bread and wine were taken to be, and were treated and designated as, the Savior’s body and blood."^[28] Justin Martyr in the mid-2nd century commented "Not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Saviour, having been made flesh by the word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation".^[29] Ignatius also shared this opinion.^[30] Where pagans would sacrifice animals for religious reasons, Christians would offer the consecrated bread and wine, which Jesus said was his body and blood of the covenant, which is "poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins."^[31]

[edit] Penance

At least by the third century, a system of public penance and absolution by the priest served to reconcile the faithful after grave sins: the sinner, either voluntarily or under threat of excommunication, would undergo penance for a period whose length depended on the gravity of the sin, and which involved a rigorous course of fasting, prayer, and almsgiving, during which the penitent was excluded from the Eucharist.^[32] Afterwards, the priest declared absolution and the person was once again allowed to partake of the Eucharist in public Christian worship.

[edit] Worship

The first worship services were liturgical gatherings, which followed essentially a "Christianized" synagogue liturgical framework, and met in sections of homes quartered off especially for worship. Christians considered each other to be brothers and sisters, each contributing their respective gifts to the community. Gatherings featured hymns, prescribed prayers, and readings, especially from the scriptures (Old Testament). The first thirty to sixty years would not have known the writings of the "New Covenant" as they had not yet been written, Christ's teachings being transmitted through the liturgy, its hymns and prayers and through oral Tradition. Eventually, once they had become known, Paul's epistles and later the gospels and other texts were read during the initial liturgical services. The Lord's Supper or Eucharist was celebrated, though there is evidence of a correlation with agape feasts (or "love feasts") which were apparently originally a part of the Eucharistic celebration, but became a separate act quite early on, perhaps as a result of abuses similar to those mentioned by Paul in 1 Corinthians 11.

Second century sources, such as the Didache, specify that the bread and wine of the Eucharist are for the baptized only. In his First Apology, a letter of defense written to Roman emperor, Antonius Pius, 161-180, Justin described a newly baptized member of the community sharing in the bread and wine of the Eucharist, which was restricted to the baptized.^[34]

Despite Ignatius' rejection of Judaizing (see above), Christianity continued many of the patterns of Judaism, adapting to Christian use the synagogue's liturgical worship, prayer, readings of Sacred Scripture, a priesthood, a religious calendar commemorating on certain days each year certain people, sacred events, or beliefs, use of music in worship, giving material support to the religious leadership, and practices such as fasting and almsgiving and baptism.

Christians adopted as their Bible the Greek translation of the Jewish Scriptures known as the Septuagint (see also Development of the Old Testament canon) and later also canonized the books of the New Testament. There are however many phrases which appear to be quotations and other statements of fact, in the early church fathers, which cannot be found in the Bible as we know it. For example in Clement's First Letter he states that Paul "reached the limits of the West", and also appears to quote a variant form of Ezek 33.

At worship, early Christians greeted each other with a holy kiss, a practice which is continued in modern times as the sign of peace. Church leaders placed some restrictions on the practice to keep the worshipers from taking pleasure in it, such as specifying that the lips be closed.

Many practices which later became characteristic of Christian worship had not yet developed. Singing was generally without instrumentation and was normally in unison. Many Christians had lost their lives rather than offer a mere pinch of incense to the emperor as to a god, and so the use of incense was still associated by Christians with pagan worship; it was only later that incense was used in worship, seemingly developing from biblical use of incense in worship. These practices and others, such as the use of elaborate vestments and grand churches and basilicas, became popular only once the Peace of the Church allowed Christians to worship freely, changing the political situation and the prosperity of worshippers.

[edit] Church Community

Christians proclaimed a God of love who enjoined them to share a higher love with one another. Some interpreted the Old Testament as revealing primarily a God of justice, whereas the New Testament, particularly the letters of Paul and the Gospel of John, revealed a more loving God. Parallels are found in Pharisaic and Rabbinic Judaism. Paul of Tarsus is represented in Acts 17:22-33 as equating the Unknown God of the Greeks as revealed in the Christian God. Early Christian communities welcomed everyone, including slaves and women, who were generally shunned in Greco-Roman culture, but there were other exceptions, such as in Epicureanism.

[edit] Organization

Christian groups were first organized loosely. In Paul's time, there were no precisely delineated functions for bishops, elders, and deacons.^[14] A Church hierarchy, however, seems to have developed by the early second century^[14] (see Pastoral Epistles, c 90 - 140^[14]). These structures were certainly formalized well before the end of the Early Christian period, which concluded with the legalization of Christianity by Constantine's Edict of Milan in 313 and the holding of the First Council of Nicea in 325, when the title of Metropolitan bishop first appears.

Some first-century Christian writings include reference to overseers ("bishops") and deacons, though these may have been informal leadership roles rather than formal positions. The Didache (dated by most scholars to the early second century),^[35]) speaks of "appointing for yourself bishops and deacons" and also speaks about teachers and prophets and false prophets. Bishops were defined as spiritual authorities over geographical areas.

By the end of the early Christian period, the church within the Roman Empire had hundreds of bishops, some of them (Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, "other provinces") holding some form of jurisdiction over others.^[36]

Jerusalem was the first church and an important church center up to 135.^[37] The First Council of Nicaea recognized and confirmed the tradition by which Jerusalem continued to be given "special honour", but did not assign to it even metropolitan authority within its own province, still less the extraprovincial jurisdiction exercised by Rome and the other sees mentioned above.^[38]

Constantinople came into prominence only after the early Christian period, being founded officially in 330, five years after the First Council of Nicaea.

[edit] Monasticism

Christian monasticism started in Egypt. The first monks lived in cities and villages, but only received great renown as they left for the wilderness and became hermits (eremetic monks).^[39] By the end of the early Christian era, Saint Pachomius was organizing his followers into a community and founding the tradition of monasticism in community (cenobitic monks).

[edit] Beliefs

Early Christian beliefs were based on the apostolic preaching (kerygma), considered to be preserved in tradition and, according as was produced, in New Testament scripture.^[40]

[edit] Christology

[edit] Divinity of Christ

Most Christians identified Jesus as divine from a very early period, although holding a variety of competing views as to what exactly this implied.^[41] Early Christian views tended to see Jesus as a unique agent of God;^[42] by the Council of Nicaea in 325 he was identified as God in the fullest sense, literally 'of the same substance, essence or being', hence in the further wording of the Creed, "Θεόν αληθινόν εκ Θεού αληθινού" Theón alēthinón ek Theoú alēthinoú 'true God from true God'.

The first and second-century texts that would later be canonized as the New Testament several times imply or directly refer to Jesus' divinity, though there is scholarly debate as to whether or not they call him God^[43] Within 15–20 years of the death of Jesus, Paul, who authored the largest early expositions of Christian theology, refers to Jesus as the resurrected "Son of God", the savior who would return from heaven and save his faithful, dead and living, from the imminent destruction of the world. The Synoptic Gospels describe him as the "Son of God", though the phrase "Son of Man" is more frequently used in the Gospel of Mark; born of the Virgin Mary by the agency of the Holy Spirit, and who will return to judge the nations. The Gospel of John identifies Jesus as the human incarnation of the divine Word or "Logos" (see Jesus the Logos) and True Vine. The Book of Revelation depicts Jesus as the "Alpha and Omega, the first and the last" who is to come soon^[44], who died and now lives forever and who holds the keys of death and Hades.^[45]. The Epistle to the Hebrews describes Jesus as the mediator of the New Covenant.

The term "Logos" was used in Greek philosophy (see Heraclitus) and in Hellenistic Jewish religious writing (see Philo Judaeus of Alexandria) to mean the ultimate ordering principle of the universe. Those who rejected the identification of Jesus with the Logos, rejecting also the Gospel of John, were called Alogi (see also Monarchianism).^[46][47]

Adoptionists, such as the Ebionites, considered him as at first an ordinary man, born to Joseph and Mary, who later became the Son of God at his baptism, his transfiguration, or his resurrection.

[edit] Trinity

The Trinity is a post-New Testament doctrine.^[14] However, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are associated in various New Testament passages.^[48] The Great Commission of Matthew 28:19 possibly reflects the baptismal practice at Matthew's time. Baptism has been in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost since the end of the first century.^[21] Acts 2:38 speaks of baptism "in the name of Jesus Christ", which some interpret as another method of baptism, while others do not, since "in the name of" is used elsewhere in Acts to mean not a form of words but "by the authority of", "for the sake of".^[49] Aside from this verse, Matthew does not equate Jesus with God nor does he specify inequality either, though he indicates a special relationship between them.^[50] One of the elements virtually universal among diverse early Christians was the understanding that Jesus the Son was uniquely united with God the Father.^[51]

According to the Eastern Orthodox tradition, the Trinity was revealed to the disciples by revelation and in religious visions called theoria^[52] during the Theophany and the Transfiguration of Jesus called the Tabor Light or uncreated light.

The close of the early Christian era is defined as the First Council of Nicea, which gave the trinity its dogmatic form. But the term trinity (coined by Tertullian) and concepts related to the trinity existed earlier in the church. The phrase "Father, Son, and Holy Spirit" became common, especially at baptism. Another trinitarian formula, "Glory to the Father, through the Son, in the Holy Spirit," was common even before the Arian controversy. However, this earlier formula does not express the co-equality of the three persons.^[53]

The Council used the Greek term homoousios (literally "of the same substance, essence or being") to express its view of the relation of the Son to the Father. However, it also appears in the early Christian era^[54] as used by Origen, Paul of Samosata, and Alexander of Alexandria though not without controversy, see for example Synods of Antioch. Various Christian writings refer to Jesus as a man and as God, but it was this Council that gave official sanction to the common Trinity formulation using this term.

Many, such as Oneness Pentecostals, see themselves as restoring early Christian practice, reject the trinitarian concepts of the early church, and generally place no importance in the post-apostolic writings of the Church Fathers on the subject. (See below in the discussion on the Church Fathers.)

[edit] Eschatology

[edit] Kingdom of God

The Apostles believed that Jesus would soon return to establish the Kingdom of Heaven on earth. The general term for this set of beliefs is parousia (or Second Coming).

Among early Christians there was a widely accepted belief that Christ's return would establish not the general resurrection but a thousand-year kingdom, with the general resurrection following (a belief known as chiliasm or premillenialism).^[55] Chapter 20 of the Book of Revelation is the main source of this teaching, though it may owe something to the Book of Daniel and to ideas popular in late pre-Christian Jewish apocalyptic literature, especially 2 Esdras and the non-canonical Books of Enoch^[56]

Early Christians inherited their belief in a future resurrection of the dead from Judaism, although it was not a universally accepted doctrine among Jews^[57] and there was no agreement whether the resurrection included the physical body, only a spiritual body or just the soul. The Christian resurrection belief, however, developed gradually towards an increased emphasis on the resurrection of the flesh, a process that can be witnessed already in the New Testament. Whereas Paul believed in the resurrection of a spiritual body denying any future for the flesh,^[58] Luke had the resurrected Jesus insisting that he was resurrected with flesh and bones.^[59] The emphasis on the resurrection on the flesh became even more pronounced in the first two centuries as Christianity succeeded in the mainly Greek eastern Mediterranean world^[60].

Apologists defended the resurrection of the dead against pagan philosophers, who considered the soul worthy of perfection but not the body. Origen, however, who attempted to synthesise Platonism and Christianity, appears to have supported the idea of an ethereal rather than corporeal resurrection.^[61]

[edit] Cosmology

The ancient Jewish picture was of the sky as a firmament, a dome covering the earth, but the prevailing picture at that times in the Mediterranean area was that of the earth as a sphere with one or more other spheres, containing the stars, rotating around it (see geocentric model)). Christian writers sometimes described the souls of the dead waiting underground for the general resurrection. They described gehenna (roughly, hell) as a subterranean fire, see also Lake of Fire. In some Hellenic traditions, influential in the Alexandrian church, souls escaped the material world of the earth and returned to the spirit realm above.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Prayer for the dead

The Encyclopædia Britannica states: "The well-attested early Christian practice of prayer for the dead ... was encouraged by the episode (rejected by Protestants as apocryphal) in which Judas Maccabeus (Jewish leader of the revolt against the tyrant Antiochus IV Epiphanes) makes atonement for the idolatry of his fallen soldiers by providing prayers and a monetary sin offering on their behalf (2 Maccabees 12:41–46); by the Apostle Paul's prayer for Onesiphorus (2 Timothy 1:18); and by the implication in Matthew 12:32 that there may be forgiveness of sins in the world to come."^[62]

That early Christians prayed for the dead, believing that the dead were thereby benefitted, is attested since at least the second-century inscription of Abercius,^[63] and celebration of the Eucharist for the dead is attested since at least the third century.^[64] Specific examples of belief in the communion of the living with the dead through prayer are found in many of the Church Fathers.^[65]

[edit] Hades

The Greek word "Hades", which, like the Hebrew word "sheol", is generally used of the abode where the dead are reckoned to be, appears several times in the New Testament.^[66] In the parable of the rich man and poor Lazarus (Luke 16:19-31), the dead rich man "in Hades" (16:23), speaks of being "tormented in this flame" (16:24), and is said to be separated by a "great gulf" from Abraham (16:26), in whose bosom Lazarus is said to be placed (16:22). The word "Hades" was used in Acts 2:27-31 (as in the Septuagint) to translate the word "sheol" of the Hebrew text of the Psalm there quoted.

Early Church Fathers who wrote in Greek, such as Hippolytus of Rome in his book on Hades, continued to use the term "Hades".^[67] Early Christian writers in Latin also used either the Greek word "Hades" itself^[68] or employed as its equivalent the Latin word "infernus", the Roman word for the underworld,^[69] as Jerome did in his translation of the New Testament.^[70]

[edit] Angels and Satan

Early Christians understood angels to be active in supporting the church and Satan to be actively opposed to it. Hippolytus, for example, recounts angels physically scourging the first antipope to force him to repent.^[71][72] Christian writers commonly saw Satan (or Beelzebub, see Mark 3) as the author of heresies. In John 8:44, Satan, rather than Abraham, is named as the father of those Jews who rejected Jesus. See also Rejection of Jesus.

The word "angel" is derived from Greek ἄγγελος, the basic meaning of which is "messenger". Visitations from the "angel of the LORD" in the Old Testament are taken by many to be pre-Incarnation manifestations of Christ.^[73][74][75] Accordingly, Justin Martyr spoke of Christ as "King, and Priest, and God, and Lord, and angel, and man, and captain, and stone, and a Son born, and first made subject to suffering, then returning to heaven, and again coming with glory, and He is preached as having the everlasting kingdom".^[76] He interpreted as Christ the Angel who spoke with Abraham in Genesis 18, and argued for the divinity of Christ.^[77]

[edit] Orthodoxy and heterodoxy

Traditionally, orthodoxy and heresy have been viewed in relation to the "orthodoxy" as an authentic lineage of tradition. Other forms of Christianity were viewed as deviant streams of thought and therefore "heterodox", or heretical. This view was dominant until the publication of Walter Bauer's Rechtgläubigkeit und Ketzerei im ältesten Christentum ("Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity") in 1934. Bauer endeavored to rethink early Christianity historically, independent from the views of the church. He stated that the second century church was very diverse and included many "heretical" groups that had an equal claim to apostolic tradition. Bauer interpreted the struggle between the orthodox and heterodox to be the "mainstream" Roman church struggling to attain dominance. He presented Edessa and Egypt as places where the "orthodoxy" of Rome had little influence during the second century. As he saw it, the theological thought of the Orient at the time would later be labeled "heresy". The response by modern scholars has been mixed. Some scholars clearly support Bauer's conclusions and others express concerns about his "attacking [of] orthodox sources with inquisitional zeal and exploiting to a nearly absurd extent the argument from silence."^[78] However, modern scholars have critiqued and updated Bauer's model.^[79] For example, subsequent analysis of Bauer's geographical model have generally fallen against Bauer such as in Egypt.^[80]

Perhaps one of the most important discussions among scholars of early Christianity in the past century is to what extent it is appropriate to speak of "orthodoxy" and "heresy". Higher criticism drastically altered the previous perception that heresy was a very rare exception to the orthodoxy. Bauer was particularly influential in the reconsideration of the historical model. During the 1970s, increasing focus on the effect of social, political and economic circumstances on the formation of early Christianity occurred as Bauer's work found a wider audience. Some scholars argue against the increasing focus on heresies. A movement away from presuming the correctness or dominance of the orthodoxy is seen as understandable, in light of modern approaches. However, they feel that instead of an even and neutral approach to historical analysis that the heterodox sects are given an assumption of superiority over the orthodox movement. The current debate is vigorous and broad. While it is difficult to summarize all current views, general statements may be made, remembering that such broad strokes will have exceptions in specific cases.^[81]

[edit] Religious writing

Early Christians wrote many religious works, some of which were later canonized as the New Testament of today.

[edit] Oral tradition and first written works

Christian testimony was entirely oral for roughly twenty years after Jesus' death. Christians passed along Jesus' teachings, proclaimed his resurrection, and prophesied his imminent return. Apostles established churches and oral traditions in various places, such as Jerusalem, Antioch, Caesarea, and Ephesus. These traditions gradually developed distinct characteristics.

When those who had heard Jesus' actual words began to die, Christians started recording the sayings in writing. The hypothetical Q document, a collection of Jesus' sayings, is perhaps the first such record (c 50).

[edit] Paul's epistles

At about the same time, Paul of Tarsus also began writing (or dictating^[82]) letters ("epistles") to various churches that would later be considered scripture. Some scholars think Paul articulated the first Christian theology: namely that all people inherit Adam's guilt (see Original Sin) and can only be saved from death by the atoning death of the Son of God, Jesus' crucifixion.

[edit] Gospels and Acts

The Gospel of Mark was written during c. 65-70, possibly motivated by the First Jewish-Roman War. The Gospel of Matthew was written c. 80-85 to convince a Jewish audience that Jesus was the expected Messiah (Christ) and a greater Moses. The Gospel of Luke, together with Acts (see Luke-Acts) was c. 85-90, considered the most literate and artistic of the gospels. Finally, the Gospel of John was written, portraying Jesus as the incarnation of the divine Word, who primarily taught about himself as a savior. All four gospels originally circulated anonymously, and they were attributed to Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John in the 2nd century.

[edit] Later epistles

Epistles by other hands than Paul's circulated in the early church. Some of them were eventually included in the New Testament canon. Many later epistles concern issues of church leadership, discipline, and disputes.

[edit] Revelation

Several apocalypses circulated in the early church, and one of them, the Book of Revelation, was later included in the New Testament.

[edit] Defining scripture

Debates about scripture were underway in the mid-second century, concurrent with a drastic increase of new scriptures, both Jewish and Christian. Debates regarding practice and belief gradually became reliant on the use of scripture other than the Septuagint. Similarly, in the third century a shift away from direct revelation as a source of authority occurred. "Scripture" still had a broad meaning and usually referred to the Septuagint among Greek speakers or the Targums among Aramaic speakers. Beyond the Torah (the Law) and some of the earliest prophetic works (the Prophets), there was no universal agreement to a canon, but it was not debated much at first. By the mid-second century, tensions arose with the growing rift between Christianity and Judaism, which some theorize led eventually to the determination of a Jewish canon by the emerging rabbinic movement,^[83] though, even as of today, there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Jewish canon was set, see Development of the Jewish Bible canon for details. For example, some scholars argue that the Jewish canon was fixed by the Hasmonean dynasty (140-37 BCE).^[84]

Regardless, throughout the Jewish diaspora newer writings were still collected and the fluid Septuagint collection was the primary source of scripture for Christians. Many works under the names of known apostles, such as the Gospel of Thomas, were accorded scriptural status in at least some Christian circles. Apostolic writings, such as I Clement and the Epistle of Barnabas, were considered scripture even within the orthodoxy through the fifth century. A problem for scholars is that there is a lack of direct evidence on when Christians began accepting their own scriptures alongside the Septuagint. Well into the second century Christians held onto a strong preference for oral tradition as clearly demonstrated by writers of the time, such as Papias.^[83]

The acceptance of the Septuagint was generally uncontested (even the Peshitta appears to be influenced^[85]). Later Jerome would express his preference for adhering strictly to the Jewish canon, but his view held little currency even in his own day. It was not until the Protestant Reformation that substantial numbers of Christians began to reject those books of the Septuagint which are not found in the Jewish canon, referring to them as biblical apocrypha. In addition, some New Testament books were also disputed, see Antilegomena.

[edit] Fathers of the church

From an early date the title "Father" was applied to bishops as witnesses to the Christian tradition. Only later, from the end of the fourth century, was it used in a more restricted sense of a more or less clearly defined group of ecclesiasical authors of the past whose authority on doctrinal matters carried special weight. According to the commonly accepted teaching, the fathers of the church are those ancient writers, whether bishops or not, who were characterized by orthodoxy of doctrine, holiness of life and the approval of the church. Sometimes Tertullian, Origen and a few others of not unimpeachable orthodoxy are now classified as Fathers of the Church.^[86]

[edit] Apostolic Fathers

The earliest Christian writings (other than those collected in the New Testament) are a group of letters credited to the Apostolic Fathers. These include the Epistle of Barnabas, the Shepherd of Hermas and the Epistles of Clement, as well as the Didache. Taken as a whole, the collection is notable for its literary simplicity, religious zeal and lack of Hellenistic philosophy or rhetoric. Fathers such as Ignatius of Antioch (died 98 to 117) advocated the authority of the apostolic episcopacy (bishops)^[87].

[edit] Post-apostolic Fathers

Post-apostolic Fathers defined and defended Christian doctrine. The Apologists became prominent in the second century. This includes such notable figures as Justin Martyr (d. 165), Tatian (d. c. 185), and Clement of Alexandria (c. 150-211/216). They debated with prevalent philosophers of their day, defending and arguing for Christianity. They focused mainly on monotheism and their harshest words were used for ancient mythologies.^[88] Fathers such as Irenaeus advocated the role of the apostolic succession of bishops in preserving apostolic teaching.

[edit] Spread of Christianity

Early Christianity spread from city to city in the Hellenized Roman Empire and beyond. Apostles traveled extensively and establishing communities in major cities and regions throughout the Empire. The first communities, outside of Jerusalem, appeared in Antioch, Ephesus, Corinth, and the political center of Rome. The original church communities were founded by apostles (see Apostolic see) and numerous other Christians soldiers, merchants, and preachers^[89] in northern Africa, Asia Minor, Arabia, Greece, and other places.^[90][91][92] Over 40 were established by the year 100,^[91][92] many in Asia Minor, such as the seven churches of Asia. By the end of the first century, Christianity had already spread to Rome, India, and major cities in Greece, Asia Minor and Syria, serving as foundations for the expansive spread of Christianity throughout the world.

[edit] See also

• Ante-Nicene Fathers
• Christianity in the 1st century
• Christianity in the 2nd century
• Christianity in the 3rd century
• Christian Torah-submission
• Constantine I and Christianity
• Constantinian shift
• Council of Jerusalem
• Early centers of Christianity
• Early Christian art and architecture
• History of Christianity
• Restorationism (Christian primitivism)
• Society for the Study of Early Christianity
• Split of early Christianity and Judaism
• State church of the Roman Empire

[edit] References

[edit] Bibliography

• Berard, Wayne Daniel. When Christians Were Jews (That Is, Now). Cowley Publications (2006). ISBN 1-56101-280-7.
• Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro & Gargola, Daniel J & Talbert, Richard John Alexander. The Romans: From Village to Empire. Oxford University Press (2004). ISBN 0-19-511875-8.
• Dauphin, C. "De l'Église de la circoncision à l'Église de la gentilité – sur une nouvelle voie hors de l'impasse". Studium Biblicum Franciscanum. Liber Annuus XLIII (1993).
• Dunn, James D.G. Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, A.D. 70 to 135. Pp 33–34. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (1999). ISBN 0-8028-4498-7.
• Ehrman, Bart D. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why. HarperCollins (2005). ISBN 0-06-073817-0.
• Endsjø, Dag Øistein. Greek Resurrection Beliefs and the Success of Christianity. New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2009.
• Esler, Phillip F. The Early Christian World. Routledge (2004). ISBN 0-415-33312-1.
• Harris, Stephen L. Understanding the Bible. Mayfield (1985). ISBN 0-87484-696-X.
• Hunt, Emily Jane. Christianity in the Second Century: The Case of Tatian. Routledge (2003). ISBN 0-415-30405-9.
• Keck, Leander E. Paul and His Letters. Fortress Press (1988). ISBN 0-8006-2340-1.
• Pelikan, Jaroslav Jan. The Christian Tradition: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600). University of Chicago Press (1975). ISBN 0-226-65371-4.
• Pritz, Ray A., Nazarene Jewish Christianity From the End of the New Testament Period Until Its Disappearance in the Fourth Century. Magnes Press - E.J. Brill, Jerusalem - Leiden (1988).
• Richardson, Cyril Charles. Early Christian Fathers. Westminster John Knox Press (1953). ISBN 0-664-22747-3.
• Stark, Rodney.The Rise of Christianity. Harper Collins Pbk. Ed edition 1997. ISBN 0-06-067701-5
• Stambaugh, John E. & Balch, David L. The New Testament in Its Social Environment. John Knox Press (1986). ISBN 0-664-25012-2.
• Tabor, James D. "Ancient Judaism: Nazarenes and Ebionites", The Jewish Roman World of Jesus. Department of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte (1998).
• Taylor, Joan E. Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins. Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0-19-814785-6.
• Thiede, Carsten Peter. The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Jewish Origins of Christianity. Palgrabe Macmillan (2003). ISBN 1-4039-6143-3.
• Valantasis, Richard. The Making of the Self: Ancient and Modern Asceticism. James Clarke & Co (2008) ISBN 978-0-227-17281-0.[2]
• White, L. Michael. From Jesus to Christianity. HarperCollins (2004). ISBN 0-06-052655-6.
• Wright, N.T. The New Testament and the People of God. Fortress Press (1992). ISBN 0-8006-2681-8.
• Wylen, Stephen M. The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction. Paulist Press (1995). ISBN 0-8091-3610-4.

[edit] External links

• Early Christians
• Ebionites
• Early Christian Writings
• Christian Classics Ethereal Library
• Early Church Texts
• The Early Christians in Their Own Words (free Ebook - English or Arabic)
• Catholic Encyclopedia: The Fathers of the Church
• PBS Frontline: The First Christians
• "The Old Testament of the Early Church" Revisited, Albert C. Sundberg, Jr.
• The Jewish Roman World of Jesus

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