From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Germanic Wars is a name given to a series of wars between the Romans and various Germanic tribes between 113 BC and 439 A.D. The nature of these wars varied through time between Roman conquest, Germanic uprisings and later Germanic invasions in the Roman Empire that started in the late 2nd century. The series of conflicts which began in the 5th century, under the Western Roman Emperor Honorius, led (along with internal strife) to the ultimate downfall of the Western Roman Empire.
[edit] Chronology
[edit] 2nd Century BCE
- 113-101 BC, Collision with Rome, Cimbrian War, Begin of Germanic Wars.
- 112, Battle of Noreia[1], Suicide of Gnaeus Papirius Carbo.
- 107, Battle of Agen[2], Death of Consul Lucius Cassius Longinus[2], Death of General Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus[2]. (Battle against Allies of the Cimbri)
- 105, Battle of Arausio, Proconsul Quintus Servilius Caepio and Consul Gnaeus Mallius Maximus exiled.
- 102, Battle of Aquae Sextiae, Capture of King Teutobod, Extermination of the Teutons[4].
- 101, Battle of Vercellae[3], Death of King Boiorix[3][5], Extermination of the Cimbri[3][5].
[edit] 1st Century BCE
- 63 BC, Fall of the Seleucid Empire.
- 58-51 BC, Conquest of Gaul to the Rhine by Caesar, Begin of Gallic Wars.
- 49–45 BC, Caesar's Civil War.
- 46 BC, Execution of Vercingetorix.[8]
- 44 BC, Assassination of Emperor Julius Caesar.
- 32-30 BC, Final War of the Roman Republic.
- 27 BC, Octavian, Emperor under the name of Augustus.
- 23 BC, Political crisis in Rome.
- 22-19 BC, Riots in Rome[9], Food shortages in some provinces[10].
- 20 BC, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Governor of Transalpine Gaul, Construction of military roads and especially the military road Lugdunum--Divodurum--Treverorum--Agrippinensium (from Lyon to Cologne).
- 16 BC, clades Lolliana[11], Destruction of Legio V Alaudae by Sicambri and their allies.
- 16-13 BC, Emperor Augustus on the Rhine, Reorganization of the Three Gauls, Decision to fortify the left bank of the Rhine and conquest of Germania to the Elbe, Begin of invasions east of the Rhine.
- 12-9 BC, Invasions of Drusus up the Elbe from the North Sea, the Lippe and Main, Cherusci and Sicambri[12] subdued, Tencteri, Usipeti and Chatti are overrun, Establishment of new forts, Arminius and Flavus sent to Rome.
- 9 BC, Death of Drusus, Creation of Germania Magna (capital Cologne), Pacification campaigns, Deportation of 40 000 Sicambri west of the Rhine.
- 6-2 BC, Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus' Invasions to the Elbe, Building of the Pontes Longi.
[edit] 1st Century
- 1-4 CE, Rise of the Chatti[13][14] and Bructeri (immensum bellum)[15] suppressed by Tiberius, who reached the Elbe.
- 6-9 CE, Uprising in Illyricum, which cancels the major project of war against Marcomanni.
- 6 CE, Varus succeeds Saturninus as governor of Germania with the mission of peacekeeping and the implementation of tax and judicial administration.
- 9 CE, clades Variana, Destruction of the legions XVII, XVIII and XIX by Arminius in the Battle of Teutoburg Forest, Loss of military camps in the east of the Rhine with the exception of Aliso.[16][17][18]
- 10-13 CE, Military command of Tiberius in Germania and interventions in the valley of the Lippe, replaced by Germanicus.
- 14 CE, Death of Emperor Augustus, Tiberius becomes Emperor, Mutiny of the legions of Germania.
- 14-16 CE, Roman retaliation against Cherusci, Chatti, Bructeri and Marsi, Capture of Arminius' wife.
- 17 CE, Cessation of military offensives east of the Rhine by Tiberius, Civil war between Germanic tribes.[19]
- 19 CE, Death of Germanicus.
- 21 CE, Assassination of Arminius.
- 37 CE, Death of Emperor Tiberius and Maroboduus.
- 41 CE, Assassination of Emperor Caligula, Raid against the Chauci under Emperor Claudius, Recovery of third legionary standard.
- 43 CE, Invasion of Britain by Rome, Fall of Britain.
- 44 CE, Revolt of the Frisians, Tax collectors hanged, Romans defeated in the Battle of Baduhennawood.
- 50 CE, Raid against the Chatti under Emperor Claudius, Liberation of prisoners.[20]
- 54 CE, Death of Emperor Claudius.
- 64 CE, Great Fire of Rome.
- 68 CE, Suicide of Emperor Nero.
- 69-70 CE, Revolt of the Batavi, Destruction of 2 legions.
- 69 CE, Year of the Four Emperors, Assassination of Emperor Galba, Suicide of Emperor Otho, Execution of Emperor Vitellius.
- 79 CE, Downfall of Pompeii and Herculaneum, Death of Emperor Vespasian.
- 81 CE, Death of Emperor Titus.
- 82-83 CE, Raids against the Chatti under Emperor Domitian.
- 89 CE, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax revolt against Rome with the aid of the Chatti.[21]
- 96 CE, Assassination of Emperor Domitian.
- 98 CE, Death of Emperor Nerva.
[edit] 2nd Century
- 117, Death of Emperor Trajan.
- 138, Death of Emperor Hadrian.
- 161, Death of Emperor Antoninus Pius.
- ca. 165, Invasion of Pannonia by Langobards and Ubii.
- 166–180, Marcomannic Wars.
- 192, Assassination of Emperor Commodus.
- 193, Year of the Five Emperors, Assassination of Emperor Pertinax by Praetorian Guard, Execution of Emperor Didius Julianus.
- 194, Death of usurper Pescennius Niger.
- 197, Execution of usurper Clodius Albinus.
[edit] 3th Century
- 211, Death of Emperor Septimius Severus, Assassination of Emperor Publius Septimius Geta.
- 217, Assassination of Emperor Caracalla by Praetorian Guard.
- 218, Execution of Emperor Macrinus and his son by Praetorian Guard.
- 222, Assassination of Emperor Elagabalus and his mother.
- 224, Fall of the Parthian Empire.
- 235–284, Crisis of the Third Century.
- 235, Battle at the Harzhorn, Assassination of Emperor Alexander Severus, End of Severan dynasty.
- 238, Gothic raid on Istria[22], Year of the Six Emperors, Assassination of Emperor Maximinus Thrax and his son, Death of Emperor Gordian II, Suicide of Emperor Gordian I, Assassination of Emperor Pupienus, Assassination of Emperor Balbinus.
- 244, Assassination of Emperor Gordian III.
- 248-249, Raid in Marcianopolis by Goths.[22]
- 249, Assassination of Emperor Philip the Arab.
- 250, Siege of Philippopolis by Goths.[23]
- 251, Battle of Abrittus, Death of Emperor Decius, Death of Co-Emperor Herennius Etruscus.
- 253, Assassination of Emperor Trebonianus Gallus, Assassination of Emperor Volusianus, Assassination of Emperor Aemilianus.
- 259, Battle of Mediolanum.
The area (Agri Decumates) between Main and Rhine was evacuated in 259, dozens of camps were abandoned.
-
- 259-260, Evacuation of Agri Decumates by Rome, Retreat behind the Rhine.
- 260–274, Germanic usurper Postumus declares himself Emperor of the Gallic Empire including Roman Gaul, Roman Britain, Roman Spain and Germania.
- 264, Death of Emperor Valerian.
- ca. 267-269, Invasion of the Goths, Battle of Thermopylae, Attack on Marcianopolis, Byzantium and Chrysopolis.
- 268, Siege of Mainz, Battle of Lake Benacus, Assassination of Emperor Gallienus, Death of Aurelius Heraclianus, Assassination of Gallic Emperor Postumus.
- 269, Siege of Augustodunum Haeduorum, Battle of Naissus[24], End of Gothic Invasion, Assassination of Gallic Emperor Marcus Aurelius Marius.
- 270, Emperor Claudius Gothicus dies from disease[25], Suicide of Emperor Quintillus.
- 271, Battle of Placentia.
- 271, Battle of Fano.
- 271, Battle of Pavia, Destruction of Alamanni army, Assassination of Gallic Emperor Victorinus, Emperor Aurelian repelled another Gothic invasion but abandoned the province of Dacia north of Danube forever[26].
- 273, Fall of the Palmyrene Empire.
- 274, Battle of Châlons, Surrender of the Gallic Empire.
- 275, Assassination of Emperor Aurelian by Praetorian Guard.
- 276, Assassination of Emperor Marcus Claudius Tacitus, Death of Emperor Florianus.
- 282, Assassination of Emperor Probus.
- 283, Death of Emperor Carus.
- 284, Assassination of Emperor Numerian.
- 285, Death of Emperor Carinus, Beginn of the Late Antiquity.
- 298, Battle of Lingones.
- 298, Battle of Vindonissa.
[edit] 4th Century
- 300, Sea levels are rising, Begin of Wandering of the Peoples.
- 306, Death of Emperor Constantius Chlorus.
- 306-324, Roman Civil War.
- 325, Execution of Emperor Licinius.
- 332, Roman invasion north of the Danube under Emperor Constantine II, Capture of Gothic Prince Ariaricus.[27][28][29][30][31]
- 337, Death of Emperor Constantine I.
- ca. 350, Infiltration of Germania Inferior by Franks.
- 353-354, Raids against Alamanni under Emperor Constantius II.
- 356, Recapture of Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) by Julian the Apostate, Siege of Senonae by Franks, Siege of Autun by Alamanni, Battle of Durocortorum, Battle of Brumath.
- 357, Invasion of Alamanni territory by Barbatio and Julian the Apostate, Attack of Lugdunum (Lyon) by Laeti, End of coordinated operation against the Alamanni, Battle of Argentoratum, Capture of Alamannic king Chnodomarius.
- 358, Raid in the province of Raetia by Juthungi and Alamanni, Destruction of Castra Regina.
- 359, Execution of Barbatio, Recapture of Moguntiacum by Julian the Apostate.
- 361, Death of Emperor Constantius II
- 363, Death of Emperor Julian the Apostate.
- 364, Death of Emperor Jovian.
- 365-366, Invasion of Roman Gaul by Alamanni, Alamanni pushed out of Roman Gaul.
- 367, Sack of Moguntiacum by Alamanni, Battle of Solicinium.
- 367-368, Barbarian Conspiracy against Roman Britain and Northern Gaul by Saxons and Franks, Death of Nectaridus.
- 367-369, Attack on Gothic Thervingi under Eastern Emperor Valens[32][33].
- 368, Invasion of Alamannic territory under Emperor Valentinian I, Crossing of the Rhine.
- 369, Destruction of a fortress near Heidelberg by Alamanni.
- 370, Invasion of Roman Gaul by Saxons, Death of all Saxons, Invasion of Alamannic territory by Valentinian I, Capture of thousands of Alamanni, Deposition of King Macrian, Hunnic raids on the Greuthungi[34][35][36][37][38][39].
- 374, Assassination of Quadic king Gabinius, Invasion of Illyricum by Quadi and Sarmatians.
- 375, Pillaging of Quadi lands, Death of Western Emperor Valentinian.
Empire of the Huns, pushing the Germanic tribes over the Limes into the Roman Empire
- 376, Invasion of the Huns, Hunnic war against Visigoths and Ostrogoths, Death of Gothic King Vithimer.
- 376–382, Hunnic raids on the Thervingi[34][35][36][37][38][39], Gothic War[34][40][36][41][37][42][43], Plundering and destruction throughout the Balkans.
- 377-378, Invasion of Thrace and Moesia by Goths led by chieftain Alatheus.
- 378, Invasion of Alsace by Alamanni, Battle of Argentovaria, Extermination of Lentienses, Death of King Priarius.
- 380, Battle of Thessalonica, Death of Gothic chieftain Fritigern, Begin of naval raids by the Saxons, Begin of the Migration of the Saxons.
- 382, Peace between Rome and the Goths, Large Gothic contingents of Thervingi, Taifali and Victohali settle along the southern Danube frontier in the province of Thrace.
- 383, Death of Emperor Gratian, Failed raid in the province of Raetia by Juthungi.
- 387, Failed Invasion of Thrace and Moesia by Goths led by chieftain Alatheus, Death of Gothic chieftain Alatheus.
- 392, Emperor Valentinian II is hanged, Frankish General Arbogast names Eugenius to be Western Emperor.
- 394, 20,000 Gothic mercenaries support Eastern Emperor Theodosius I in the Battle of the Frigidus, Suicide of Frankish General Arbogast, Execution of puppet Western Emperor Eugenius.
- 395, Death of Emperor Theodosius I, Assassination of Rufinus by Gothic mercenaries.
[edit] 5th Century
- 400, Begin of the Dark Ages.
- 401-402, Raid in Raetia by Vandals.
- 401-403, Invasion of Italy by Visigoths under Alaric I, Gothic War.
- 405, Siege of Florentina[44], Battle of Faesulae[45], Execution of Gothic King Radagaisus[46], 12,000 Gothic higher-status fighters are drafted into the Roman army[46][44].
- 406, War between Franks and Vandals, Battle of Moguntiacum, Death of Vandal King Godigisel, Alans under King Respendial rescue the Vandals, Invasion of Gaul by Vandals, Suebi, Burgundians and Alans, Fall of Roman Gaul, Begin of the Fall of Roman Britain, Begin of the Fall of Roman Spain.
- 408, Execution of Stilicho, Slaughter of wives and children of barbarian foederati, Siege of Rome by Visigoths, Attacks on Roman Britain by Saxons.
Kingdom of the Vandals (yellow) before the Invasion of Roman Africa, ca. 418.
- 409, 2nd Siege of Rome by Visigoths, Invasion of Roman Spain by Vandals, Suebi (Marcomanni, Quadi, Buri) and Alans.
- 410, Sack of Rome by Visigoths, Begin of Attacks on Vandals by Visigoths, Death of Visigothic King Alaric I, Roman Britain is left to itself by Emperor Honorius, Fall of Roman Britain, Begin of Barbarian raids by Picts, Scoti and Irish Celts.
- 411, Jovinus declares himself Western Roman Emperor with aid of the Burgundians, Franks and Alans, Burgundians establish a Kingdom left of the Rhine under King Gundahar.
- 413, Capture of Narbonne and Toulouse by Visigoths led by King Ataulf, Sack of Trier by Franks.
- 415, Assassination of Visigothic King Ataulf, Assassination of Visigothic King Sigeric.
- 419, Death of Visigothic King Valia.
- 421, Sack of Trier by Franks.
- 422, Capture and Execution of Frankish King Theudemeres by Romans, Attack on Vandals by Romans.
- 423, Death of Western Emperor Honorius.
- 426, War between Visigoths and Alans, Death of Western Alan King Attaces, Alans subject to the Vandals.
- 426-436, Campaigns against the Visigoths in southern Gaul under Western Emperor Valentinian III, Capture of Visigoth chieftain Anaolsus.
- 428, Invasion of Northern Gaul by Salian Franks led by King Chlodio.
- 428-431, Failed Roman campaigns against Salian Franks, Juthungi on the Rhine and Danube.
Kingdom of the Vandals in North Africa.
- 429-439, Invasion of Africa by Vandals led by Vandal King Genseric, Siege of Hippo Regius, Capture of Carthage, Capture of Roman navy, Pillaging of Sicily, Begin of pirate raids by Vandals.
- 431, Invasion to the Somme River by Salian Franks.
- 436-437, Invasion of Burgundian Rhineland by Hun mercenaries controlled by Rome, Death of Burgundian King Gundahar.
- ca. 443, Britain plunges into civil war, Groans of the Britons, Britain is abandoned by Western Emperor Valentinian III.
- 448, Defeat of the Salian Franks in the Battle of Vicus Helena, Death of King Chlodio.
- ca. 449, Anglo-Saxon elite mercenaries land in Britain.
- 451, Invasion of Gaul by the Huns with Frankish, Gothic and Burgundian mercenaries led by Attila the Hun, Sack of Trier, Attack on Metz, Siege of Orléans, Coalition of Romans, Franks and Visigoths led by Flavius Aetius stop the Huns in the Battle of Châlons, Death of Visigothic King Theodoric I.
- 452, Invasion of Northern Italy under Atilla, Sack of Aquileia, Sack of Vicetia, Sack of Verona, Sack of Brixia, Sack of Bergamum, Sack of Milan, Anglo-Saxons push the Pits back to Scotland.
- ca. 452-ca. 497, Invasion of Roman Britain by Saxons, food shortages, Rebellion of Anglo-Saxon mercenaries in Britain.
- 453, Atilla marries German girl Ildico, Attack on Constantinople, Death of Atilla the Hun.
- 454, Ostrogoths and Gepids defeat the Huns in the Battle of Nedao, Death of Hunnic King Ellac, Assassination of General Flavius Aetius.
- 455, Assassination of Western Emperor Valentinian III, Sack of Rome by Vandals, Capture of Empress Licinia Eudoxia by Vandals, Stoning of Western Emperor Petronius Maximus.
- 457, Execution of Western Emperor Avitus.
- 458, Defeat of the Visigoths in southern Gaul by Majorian.
- 459, Seizure of Trier by Franks, Beginn of Decline of Trier until 1697.
- ca. 460, Night of the Long Knives, Death of all British chieftains, Begin of violent land grab by Anglo-Saxons.
- 461, Battle of Cartagena, Execution of Western Emperor Majorian.
- 465, Death of Western Emperor Libius Severus.
- 466, Battle of Wippedesfleot.
- 468, Invasion of Vandal Kingdom by the Byzantine Empire, Defeat of Byzantine Empire by Vandals.
Europe in the 5th century
- 469, Fall of the Hunnic Empire.
- 472, Execution of Western Emperor Anthemius, Death of Western Emperor Olybrius, Revolt in Thrace by Ostrogoths led by chieftain Theodoric Strabo.
- 474, Deposition of Western Emperor Glycerius.
- 475, Deposition of Western Emperor Julius Nepos.
- 476, Revolt of Heruli, Scirian and Torcilingi mercenaries, Battle of Ravenna, Execution of Orestes, Deposition of Western Emperor Romulus Augustulus, Heruli chieftain Odoacer King of Italy, Fall of the Roman Empire.
- 477, Death of Vandal King Genseric[47], Begin of Decline of the Vandal Kingdom.
- 480, Assassination of Ex-Emperor Julius Nepos.
- 485, Battle of Mercredesburne.[48]
- 486, Franks defeat the Kingdom of Soissons in the Battle of Soissons, Fall of the Kingdom of Soissons.
- 489, Battle of Isonzo, Battle of Verona.
- 491, Siege of Pevensey by South Saxons.[49]
- 493, Assassination of King Odoacer by Ostrogothic King Theodoric the Great.
- 496, War between Franks and Alamanni for supremacy on the Rhine, Battle of Tolbiac, Death of Alamannic King Gibuld, Alamanni subject to the Franks, Begin of Christianizing of the Franks, Begin of Christianizing of Europe.
- ca. 497, Defeat of the Anglo-Saxons in the Battle of Mons Badonicus by Britons led by King Arthur.
[edit] 6th Century
Kingdom of the Visigoths, Kingdom of the Suebi, Kingdom of the Burgundians, Kingdom of the Franks, ca. 490.
- 500, Begin of the Early Middle Ages.
- 507, Franks and the Byzantine Empire plot against the Visigoths and defeat them in the Battle of Vouillé[50], Death of Visigothic King Alaric II, Paris capital of the Frankish Kingdom.
- 511, Death of Frankish King Clovis I.
- ca. 520, Anglo-Saxons took control of Sussex, Kent, East Anglia and part of Yorkshire, West Saxons founded a Kingdom in Hampshire under Cerdic, Begin of War between the Kingdoms.
- 524, Defeat of the Burgundians in the Battle of Vézeronce by Salian Franks, Death of Frankish General Chlodomer, Execution of Burgundian King Sigismund, Execution of Burgundian Prince Gisald and Prince Gondebaud.
- 526, Raid against the Gepidae by General Belisarius.
- 533-534, Vandalic War.
- 534, Assassination of Burgundian King Godomar, Destruction of the Burgundian Kingdom by Franks, Burgundians now ruled by Frankish Kings.
- 535–554, Gothic War, Invasion of Italy by Byzantine Empire[50].
- 535, Capture of Sicily by Belisarius.
- 536, Capture of Naples and Rome by Belisarius.
- 537-538, Siege of Rome by Ostrogoths.
- 540, Capture of Mediolanum and the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna by Belisarius, Capture of Ostrogothic King Witiges.
- 541-544, Recapture of Northern Italy by Ostrogoths.
- 546, Sack of Rome by Ostrogoths.
- ca. 548, Recapture of Rome by the Byzantine Empire.
- 549, Sack of Rome by Ostrogoths.
- 551, Battle of Sena Gallica.
- 552, Byzantine Empire with aid of the Heruli and Langobards defeat the Ostrogoths in the Battle of Taginae, Death of Ostrogothic King Totila.
- 552-553, Capture of Rome and Siege of Cumae by General Narses, Battle of Mons Lactarius, Death of Ostrogothic King Teia, Fall of the Ostrogothic Kingdom.
- 554, Battle of the Volturnus.[51]
- ca. 558-561, Failed Uprising of the Ostrogoth Widin[52].
- 568-ca. 572, Invasion of Italy by Langobards, Bavarians, Gepidae and Saxons, Begin of End of Byzantine rule.
- 577, Battle of Deorham, Capture of Glevum, Corinium, Aquae Sulis by Anglo-Saxons (Wessex) led by Cealin.
- 585, Invasion of Gallaecia by Visigoths[50], Fall of the Suebic Kingdom of Galicia.
- 596, Angles defeated an alliance of Scots, Britons and Picts in the Battle of Raith.[53]
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ a b Mommsen, Theodor. "History of Rome: Book IV - The Revolution". pp. 67. http://italian.classic-literature.co.uk/history-of-rome/04-the-revolution/ebook-page-67.asp. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
- ^ a b c d Theodor Mommsen, Römische Geschichte. Vol. 2. Von der Schlacht von Pydna bis auf Sullas Tod.. 3.Ed. Weidmann, Berlin 1861, S. 178. (German) (Roman History: From the battle of Pydna down to Sulla's death.) Römische Geschichte: Bd. Von der Schlacht von Pydna bis auf Sullas Tod
- ^ a b c d Mossman, Theodor (1908). History of Rome. New York: Charles Scribner's SOns. pp. 71. http://italian.classic-literature.co.uk/history-of-rome/04-the-revolution/ebook-page-71.asp. Retrieved 9 October 2009.
- ^ Florus, Epitome 1.38.16-17 and Valerius Maximus, Factorum et Dictorum Memorabilium 6.1.ext.3 (in Latin)
- ^ a b Ibid, p. 72
- ^ Smith, William (1867). "Ambiorix". in William Smith. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. pp. 138–139. http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0147.html.
- ^ Florus, III. 10. § 8.
- ^ Birkhan, Helmut, 1997, Die Kelten, p. 238. (German) (The Celts)
- ^ Dio 54.1, 6, 10.
- ^ Eck, Werner, 2003, The age of Augustus, p. 55.
- ^ Suetonius, Augustus, 23, Tiberius, 12; Tacitus, Annals, I.10, III.48; Velleius II.97, 102; Pliny, Nat. Hist. IX.35 (58); Dio, liv.6.
- ^ Dio, Roman History, LIV.33.
- ^ Several examples by Max Ihm, s. v. Cheruski, in: Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE) III.2, Stuttgart 1899, cols. 2270–2272. (German))
- ^ "Chatti in Encyclopædia Britannica". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010-09. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/107997/Chatti#218403.hook.
- ^ Velleius, Compendium of Roman History, book 2, 104,2.
- ^ Wells, Peter S. The Battle that stopped Rome. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. 2003, p. 187 ISBN 0-393-32643-8
- ^ "The Ambush That Changed History". Fergus M. Bordewich, Smithsonian Magazine. 2005-09. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/ambush.html. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
- ^ "Germans under Arminius Revolt Against Rome". Edward Shepherd Creasy, The Great Events by Famous Historians, Vol. 2. 1905. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Great_Events_by_Famous_Historians,_Vol._2/Germans_under_Arminius_Revolt_Against_Rome.
- ^ Kevin Sweeney, Scholars look at factors surrounding Hermann’s victory. www.nujournal.com 2010-10.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals, XII.27
- ^ Dean-Jones, Lesley (1992), p. 144
- ^ a b Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, Rome's Gothic Wars, p. 18.
- ^ Jordanes, The Goths in the Third Century AD in THE ORIGIN AND DEEDS OF THE GOTHS, translated by Charles C. Mierow, www.earth-history.com
- ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova, book 1.43
- ^ Syncellus, George, Extract of Chronography, p. 720.
- ^ Potter, David S., A Companion to the Roman Empire, p. 270
- ^ Sozomen, Ecclesiastical History, book 1, chapter 8 & book 2, chapter 34.
- ^ Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, Rome's Gothic Wars, pp. 83-84.
- ^ Origo Constantini 6.32 mention the actions.
- ^ Eusebius, The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine, IV.6
- ^ Odahl, Charles M., Constantine and the Christian Empire, chapter X.
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Historiae, book 27, chapter 5.
- ^ Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, Rome's Gothic Wars, pp. 115-116.
- ^ a b c Zosimus, Historia Nova, book 4.
- ^ a b Ammianus Marcellinus, Historiae, book 31, chapter 3.
- ^ a b c Philostorgius, Ecclesiastical history, book 9, chapter 17.
- ^ a b c Sozomen, Ecclesiastical History, book 6, chapter 37.
- ^ a b Heather, Peter, 1998, The Goths, pp. 98-104.
- ^ a b Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, Rome's Gothic Wars, pp. 124-128.
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Historiae, book 31, chapters 5-16.
- ^ Socrates Scholasticus, The Ecclesiastical History, book 4, chapters 34-38 & book 5, chapter 1.
- ^ Heather, Peter, 1998, The Goths, pp. 130-138.
- ^ Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, Rome's Gothic Wars, pp. 130-153.
- ^ a b Heather, Peter, The Goths, p. 205
- ^ Jaques, Tony. Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: F-O. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007, ISBN 9780313335389, p. 345.
- ^ a b Heather, Peter, The Goths, p. 194
- ^ Vandals in Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)
- ^ ASC Parker MS. 485AD.
- ^ ASC Parker MS. 491AD.
- ^ a b c "World Timeline of Europe AD 400-800 Early medieval". The British Museum. 2005. http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/europe/AD400-800. Retrieved 2009-04-06.
- ^ Haldon, John, 2008, The Byzantine Wars, p. 39.
- ^ Amory, Patrick, 2003, People and Identity in Ostrogothic Italy, 489-554.
- ^ Macbean, Lachlan (1924), Kirkcaldy Burgh and Schyre.
[edit] Further reading
- Florus on the Germanic wars, translated by E.S. Forster, www.livius.org 2010-10.
- The Germanic Wars, 2nd Century, www.unrv.com 2010-10.
- Roman Germanic Wars, 12 BC to 17 AD, www.heritage-history.com 2010-10.
- Timeline of Ancient Europe, www.earth-history.com 2010-10.
- Speidel, Michael, 2004, Ancient Germanic warriors: Warrior styles from Trajan's column to Icelandic sagas. (book)
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Ancient Roman wars |
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War with the Latin League · Samnite Wars · Latin War · Pyrrhic War · Punic Wars (First, Second, Third) · Macedonian Wars (Illyrian, First Macedonian, Second Macedonian, Seleucid, Third Macedonian, Fourth Macedonian) · Jugurthine War · Cimbrian War · Roman Servile Wars (First, Second, Third) · Social War · Civil wars of Lucius Cornelius Sulla (First, Second) · Mithridatic Wars (First, Second, Third) · Gallic Wars · Julius Caesar's civil war · End of the Republic (Post-Caesarian, Liberators', Sicilian, Fulvia's, Final)
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