Polytheism

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Polytheism is the belief of multiple deities also known as gods, usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own mythologies and rituals.

Polytheism was the typical form of religion during the Bronze Age and Iron Age, up to the Axis age and the gradual development of monotheism or pantheism, and ultimately atheism. It is well documented in historical religions of Classical Antiquity, especially Greek polytheism and Roman polytheism, and after the decline of classical polytheism in tribal religions such as Germanic polytheism or Slavic polytheism. It persists into the modern period in traditions such as Hinduism, Shintoism, Chinese folk religion, etc., and it has been revived in currents of Neopaganism in the post-Christian West.

Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the belief in a singular God. Polytheists do not always worship all the gods equally, but can be Henotheists, specialising in the worship of one particular deity. Other polytheists can be Kathenotheists, worshiping different deities at different times.

Contents 1 Etymology 2 Gods and divinity 3 Types of deities 4 Mythology and religion 5 Historical polytheism 5.1 Ancient Greece 6 Folk religion 7 Contemporary world religions 7.1 Hinduism 7.2 Buddhism and Shinto 8 Neopaganism 8.1 Wicca 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links

[edit] Etymology

The English language word "polytheism" is attested from the 17th century, loaned from French polythéisme, which had been in use since 1580. In post-classical Latin, the term is polytheismus. The word is attested later than atheism but earlier than theism.

It ultimately derives from the Greek adjective πολυθεός (from πολύς "many" and θεός "god"), in the meaning "of or belonging to many gods" found in Aeschylus (Suppliant Women 424), or "believing in many gods" in Procopius (Historia Arcana 13).

[edit] Gods and divinity

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: gods

The deities of polytheistic religions are agents in mythology, where they are portrayed as complex personages of greater or lesser status, with individual skills, needs, desires and histories. These gods are often seen as similar to humans (anthropomorphic) in their personality traits, but with additional individual powers, abilities, knowledge or perceptions.

Polytheism cannot be cleanly separated from the animist beliefs prevalent in most folk religions. The gods of polytheism are in many cases the highest order of a continuum of supernatural beings or spirits, which may include ancestors, demons, wights and others. In some cases these spirits are divided into celestial or chthonic classes, and belief in the existence of all these beings does not imply that all are worshipped.

[edit] Types of deities

Types of deities often found in polytheism^{[citation needed]}

• Sky god (celestial)
• Death deity (chthonic)
• Mother goddess
• Love goddess
• Creator deity
• Solar deity
• Water deity
• Trickster deity
• Life-death-rebirth deity
• Culture hero
• Gods of music, the arts, science, farming or other endeavors.

[edit] Mythology and religion

In the Classical era, Sallustius (4th century CE) categorised mythology into five types:

1. Theological
2. Physical
3. Psychological
4. Material
5. Mixed

The theological are those myths which use no bodily form but contemplate the very essence of the gods: e.g., Cronus swallowing his children. Since divinity is intellectual, and all intellect returns into itself, this myth expresses in allegory the essence of divinity.

Myths may be regarded physically when they express the activities of gods in the world.

The psychological way is to regard (myths as allegories of) the activities of the soul itself and or the soul's acts of thought.

The material is to regard material objects to actually be gods, for example: to call the earth Gaia, ocean Okeanos, or heat Typhon.

The mixed kind of myth may be seen in many instances: for example they say that in a banquet of the gods, Eris threw down a golden apple; the goddesses contended for it, and were sent by Zeus to Paris to be judged. (See also the Judgement of Paris.) Paris saw Aphrodite to be beautiful and gave her the apple. Here the banquet signifies the hypercosmic powers of the gods; that is why they are all together. The golden apple is the world, which being formed out of opposites, is naturally said to be 'thrown by Eris '(or Discord). The different gods bestow different gifts upon the world, and are thus said to 'contend for the apple'. And the soul which lives according to sense - for that is what Paris is - not seeing the other powers in the world but only beauty, declares that the apple belongs to Aphrodite.

[edit] Historical polytheism

Some well-known historical polytheistic pantheons include the Sumerian gods and the Egyptian gods, and the classical attested pantheon which includes the Ancient Greek religion, and Roman Religion. Post classical polytheistic religions include Norse Æsir and Vanir, the Yoruba Orisha, the Aztec gods, and many others. Today, most historical polytheistic religions are pejoratively referred to as "mythology", though the stories cultures tell about their gods should be distinguished from their worship or religious practice. For instance deities portrayed in conflict in mythology would still be worshipped sometimes in the same temple side by side, illustrating the distinction in the devotees mind between the myth and the reality. It is speculated that there was once a Proto-Indo-European religion, from which the religions of the various Indo-European peoples derive, and that this religion was an essentially naturalist numenistic religion. An example of a religious notion from this shared past is the concept of *dyēus, which is attested in several distinct religious systems.

In many civilizations, pantheons tended to grow over time. Deities first worshipped as the patrons of cities or places came to be collected together as empires extended over larger territories. Conquests could lead to the subordination of the elder culture's pantheon to a newer one, as in the Greek Titanomachia, and possibly also the case of the Æsir and Vanir in the Norse mythos. Cultural exchange could lead to "the same" deity being renowned in two places under different names, as with the Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans, and also to the introduction of elements of a "foreign" religion into a local cult, as with Egyptian Osiris worship brought to ancient Greece.

Most ancient belief systems held that gods influenced human lives. However, the Greek philosopher Epicurus held that the gods were living, incorruptible, blissful beings who did not trouble themselves with the affairs of mortals, but who could be perceived by the mind, especially during sleep. Epicurus believed that these gods were material, human-like, and that they inhabited the empty spaces between worlds.

Hellenistic religion may still be regarded as polytheistic, but with strong monistic components, and monotheism finally emerges out of Hellenistic traditions in Late Antiquity in the form of Neoplatonism and Christian theology.

Bronze Age to Classical Antiquity

• Religions of the Ancient Near East
  • Ancient Egyptian religion
  • Ancient Semitic religion
• Historical Vedic religion
• Ancient Greek religion
• Ancient Roman religion
• Celtic polytheism

Late Antiquity to High Middle Ages

• Germanic paganism
• Slavic paganism
• Baltic paganism
• Finnish paganism

[edit] Ancient Greece

The classical scheme in Ancient Greece of the Twelve Olympians (the Canonical Twelve of art and poetry) were:^[1][2] Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Athena, Ares, Demeter, Apollo, Artemis, Hephaestus, Aphrodite, Hermes and Dionysus; Hestia stepped down when Dionysus was offered a seat on Mount Olympus and Hades^[3] was often excluded because he dwelt in the underworld. There was, however, a great deal of fluidity as to whom was counted among their number in antiquity.^[4] Different cities often worshipped the same deities, sometimes with epithets that distinguished them and specified their local nature.

The Hellenic Polytheism extended beyond mainland Greece, to the islands and coasts of Ionia in Asia Minor, to Magna Graecia (Sicily and southern Italy), and to scattered Greek colonies in the Western Mediterranean, such as Massalia (Marseille). Greek religion tempered Etruscan cult and belief to form much of the later Roman religion.

[edit] Folk religion

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The animistic nature of folk beliefs is an anthropological cultural universal. The belief in ghosts and spirits animating the natural world and the practice of ancestor worship is universally present in the world's cultures and re-emerges in monotheistic or materialistic societies as "superstition", belief in demons, tutelary saints, fairies or extraterrestrials.

The presence of a full polytheistic religion, complete with a ritual cult conducted by a priestly caste, requires a higher level of organization and is not present in every culture. Explicit polytheism in contemporary folk religion is found in African traditional religion as well as African diasporic religions. In Eurasia, the Kalash are one of very few instances of surviving polytheism. Also, a large number of polytheist folk traditions are subsumed in contemporary Hinduism, although Hinduism is doctrinally dominated by monist or monotheist theology (Bhakti, Advaita). Historical Vedic polytheist ritualism survives as a minor current in Hinduism, known as Shrauta. More widespread is folk Hinduism, with rituals dedicated to various local or regional deities.

[edit] Contemporary world religions

[edit] Hinduism

Religious Hinduism is a broad category which encompasses both monotheistic and polytheistic tendencies, and variations on or mixes of both structures. So common worship is largely polytheistic, while Hindu philosophers and theologians argued for a transcendent metaphysical structure with a single divine essence. This divine essence was usually referred to as Brahman or Atman, but the understanding of the nature of this absolute divine essence is the line which defines many Hindu philosophical traditions such as Vedanta.

Many Hindus believe in different deities emanating from Brahman, and the majority continues to worship a deity as a matter of personal belief or tradition as a representation of this supreme being.

In the Smartha denomination of Hinduism, the philosophy of Advaita expounded by Shankara allows veneration of numerous deities^{[citation needed]} with the understanding that all of them are but manifestations of one impersonal divine power, Brahman. Therefore, according to various schools of Vedanta including Shankara, which is the most influential and important Hindu theological tradition, there are a great number of deities in Hinduism, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha, Hanuman, Lakshmi, and Kali, but they are essentially different forms of the same "Being". However, many Vedantic philosophers also argue that all individuals were united by the same impersonal, divine power in the form of the Atman.

In contrast to the Smartha sect, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism follow an established singular concept of a personal god, as panentheistic monistic monotheism, but differ in their conceptions of the Supreme God. A Vaishnavite considers Vishnu or Krishna as the only god worthy of worship, and worship of other deities as subordinate, or recommends worship of other forms of God as aspects or expansions of the Supreme. Many Vaishnavas regard Shiva as the topmost devotee of Vishnu, not to be confused with Sadashiv, who is regarded as an expansion of Vishnu. Shaivite worshiper's position is usually similar to Vaishnavism, however, they worship Shiva alone as the Supreme.

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It is general misconception that Hinduism is worship of many demigods. In fact all Vedic scriptures point to Vedanta, conclusion of Vedas which is Supreme Personality of Godhead personified, so conclusion of Vedas, Vedanta is that Supreme Absolute Truth is Bhagavan Himself known by many names: Hari, Vishnu, Narayana, Krishna, Govinda, Rama. All those words refer to Supreme Absolute Personality of Godhead, which is other category aside from demigods. There are 8-400-000 material bodies which soul can get on any of 14 material planets in material world, and some of those planets are material heavenly planets where demigods reside. Among them Indra is major demigod. But all those demigods are themselves devotees of Supersoul which is in their hearts - devotees of Absolute Personality known as Brahman, Paramatma and Bhagavan. Vedas clearly state that one who thinks that Vishnu is on same level as demigods like Brahma and/or Shiva and/or other - he is to be considered offender. Thus any concept that Hinduism or Vedic religion, sanatana(varnasrama-,bhagavata-)dharma is polytheism is incorrect. Vedas point to devotional service to Absolute Truth personally - Bhagavan, though accepts many His representatives, spiritual masters of five vaisnava sampradayas - Caitanya, Lakshmi, Four Kumaras, Brahma and Shiva. Any separate worship to these personalities is certainly not bona-fide understanding of sanatana-dharma and is not to be accepted as Vedic religion (Hinduism). That which is known now as Hinduism should refer to worship of Supreme Personality of Godhead, but not worship of demigods separately from their Supersoul, Vishnu. Then it is right understanding of position of demigods (devatas) in Vedas - as subordinate to Bhagavan, Supreme Personality of Godhead.

However, even Shankaracarya concluded^{[citation needed]} that Vishnu (Narayana, Krishna) is beyond material manifestation, thus Vishnu is above all other deities, and so Bhagavan Vishnu, Narayana, Krishna, is Supreme Personality of Godhead. Even impersonlists, thus discourage worship of demigods, but point to worship of Brahman which is beyond material concepts of karma and worshipping demigods on higher material planets. Shankaracarya as devotee of Vishnu thus concluded that one should inquire about Brahman, Paramatma, Bhagavan, and not demigods. Though even demigods are accepted as representatives of Vishnu: demigods like Brahma and Shiva are themselves devotees of Vishnu.

[edit] Buddhism and Shinto

In Buddhism, there are higher beings commonly designed (or designated) as gods, Devas; however, Buddhism, at its core, does not teach the notion of praying nor worship to the Devas or any god(s).

Devas, in general, are beings who have had more positive karma in their past lives than humans. Their lifespan eventually ends. When their lives end, they will be reborn as devas or as other beings. When they accumulate negative karma, they are reborn as either human or any of the other lower beings. Humans and other beings could also be reborn as a deva in their next rebirth, if they accumulate many positive karma; however, it is not recommended.

Buddhism flourished in different countries, and some of those countries have polytheistic folk religions. Buddhism syncretizes easily with other religions. Thus, Buddhism has mixed with the folk religions and emerged in polytheistic variants as well as nontheistic variants. For example, in Japan, Buddhism, mixed with Shinto, which worships deities called kami or kamigami (kami's plural form), created a tradition which prays to the deities of Shinto as a form of Buddha. Thus, there may be elements of worship of gods in some forms of later Buddhism.

[edit] Neopaganism

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Hard Polytheists believe that gods are distinct, separate real divine beings not psychological archetypes or personifications of natural forces. Hard polytheists reject the idea that "all gods are one God"

This is contrasted with Soft Polytheism, which holds that Gods may be aspects of only one God, psychological archetypes or personifications of natural forces.

It is a misconception that Hard Polytheists consider the gods of all cultures as being equally real; that is a theological position more correctly called integrational polytheism or omnitheism.

Soft Polytheism is prevalent in New Age and syncretic currents of Neopaganism, as are psychological interpretations of deities as archetypes of the human psyche. English occultist Dion Fortune was a major populiser of soft polytheism. In her novel, The Sea Priestess, she wrote, "All gods are one god, and all goddesses are one goddess, and there is one initiator."^[5] This phrase is very popular among some Neopagans (notably, Wiccans) and incorrectly often believed to be just a recent work of fiction. However, Fortune indeed quoted from an ancient source, the Latin novel The Golden Ass of Apuleius. Fortune's soft polytheist compromise between monotheism and polytheism has been described as "pantheism" (Greek: πάν pan 'all' and θεός theos 'god').^[who?] However, "Pantheism" has a longer history of usage to refer to a view of an all-encompassing immanent divine.

Neopaganism often blends polytheism with pantheism or panentheism.

[edit] Wicca

Wicca is a pantheistic, duotheistic, and a polytheistic faith. It sees the universe as being comprised by a divine Godhead (known by various names), but whom is subdivided into the opposing polarities of The God and The Goddess. Each of these deities can be further divided into many different polytheistic deities, which are aspects of The God and The Goddess. Wicca is tolerant in the understanding of divinity, but emphasises a balance and equality between male and female deities, whereas other polytheistic faiths have often placed male deities at the top of the hierarchy.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] See also

• Theism
• Henotheism
• Monotheism
• Pantheism
• Apotheosis
• Demigod
• Polytheistic reconstructionism
• Shirk (polytheism)

[edit] References

[edit] Further reading

• Assmann, Jan, 'Monotheism and Polytheism' in: Sarah Iles Johnston (ed.), Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, Harvard University Press (2004), ISBN 0674015177, pp. 17–31.
• Burkert, Walter, Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical, Blackwell (1985), ISBN 0631156240.
• Greer, John Michael; A World Full of Gods: An Inquiry Into Polytheism, ADF Publishing (2005), ISBN 0-976-56810-1
• Iles Johnston, Sarah; Ancient Religions, Belknap Press (September 15, 2007), ISBN 0-674-02548-2
• Marbaniang, Domenic Epistemics of Divine Reality Google Books (See Chapter 3 Empirical Epistemics of Divine Reality for philosophical analysis of polytheism)
• Paper, Jordan; The Deities are Many: A Polytheistic Theology, State University of New York Press (March 3, 2005), ISBN 978-0791463871
• Penchansky, David, Twilight of the Gods: Polytheism in the Hebrew Bible (2005), ISBN 0664228852.

[edit] External links

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Polytheism

Look up polytheism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• The Association of Polytheist Traditions - APT, a UK-based community of Polytheists.
• International Year Of Polytheism Philosophical project promoting polytheism by group monochrom
• Integrational Polytheism

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